The intentional arrangement of earthen forms in the landscape is a measure that has been used since ancient times. Their significance changed over the centuries, similarly to the scale of the structures that were being built. All manners of escarpments, mounds and embankments functioned as integral elements of a visual, religious, sepulchral and commemorative significance within the landscape, in addition to constituting the basis of the compositions of garden and park layouts. In prehistory there appeared a tradition of the forming of artificial hills, examples of which were the most numerous in areas of Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Scandinavia and central Europe (including, among other areas, Poland). During later periods, along with the disappearance of pagan cultures, the tendency had disappeared as well until the late Middle Ages, when earthen embankments were used, among other things, as tombs or in order to delineate the borders of landed estates. During the Renaissance and the Baroque the building of so-called parnassi (from the name Parnassus), which were garden mounds, gained in popularity. In modern times, in turn, mounds and other artificial embankments were erected mainly as monuments commemorating national heroes and important evens (e.g. the Kościuszko and Piłsudski mounds in Krakow). Since the second half of the twentieth century landscape architects have often employed these types of spatial elements. This fascination with the use of earthworks - both for practical (e.g. waste treatment, reducing noise and air pollution), as well as artistic reasons - provides excellent effects in the spaces of cities. It aids in the individualisation of the landscape and of individual places, in building their identity and distinctness. Despite the fact that the reasons for using earthen forms in the landscape have been changing since ancient times all the way to the present, in many cases it is the symbolic value constitutes the overarching creative idea. This phenomenon has been presented in the article. Selected case studies, primarily from Europe and the United States of America, were analysed. The use of these forms throughout history has been presented - ranging from prehistoric geoglyphs or tombs, mounds used as monuments, e.g. those in Krakow, to contemporary layouts, e.g. the Vietnam Veterans Memorial by M. Lin, the Jacobs Javitz Plaza by M. Schwartz or the built projects by Ch. Jencks. The mutual correlations between structures built during different historical periods - for instance common archetypes or the idea of visual and spatial connections - is also an interesting problem. Elevating the landscape to the rank of a symbol causes space to gain an intangible value and provides visitors with new experiences. The placement of these types of structures within the contemporary landscape appears to be a beneficial measure making it possible to create not only a harmonious or beautiful space, but also one that has meaning.
In park and garden design, one of the more valued assets of the natural environment is water. Perceived as the source of life, it has always constituted an essential element of garden compositions, one that is both impressive and symbolic. In subsequent historical periods, designers expanded the possibilities of using water in garden layouts and since the nineteenth century waterfront areas have been an important element of shaping systems of urban parks. The article features a characterisation of the participation of water and waterfront areas in Krakow’s gardens and areas of public greenery. The matter of both waterway systems that order the structure of the city, anthropogenic or natural pools, as well as details decorating park spaces were discussed. One of the most essential elements that have crystallised Krakow’s urban layout are so-called river parks. The presence of rivers in the city significantly improves its visual attractiveness. Natural points, sequences of views and exposed places are highly distinct, in addition to an attractive waterfront landscape with outstanding landmarks. This is confirmed by historical panoramas and contemporary conceptual proposals of walking areas and boulevards. River parks, which are linear, show highly diverse landscapes, the separate tradition of places, their own identities, including natural identities—not limited to the Vistula River valley—as the Vistula is the main river. Natural and artificial bodies of water and their accompanying recreational areas, e.g. Zakrzówek, Bagry or Przylasek Rusiecki, have a significant share in shaping Krakow’s areas of greenery. Water is also present in Krakow’s gardens and parks. Its visual qualities, the charm of shimmering light, reflections and the dynamism of, among other things, water jets on a smooth water surface, as well as its sound have all found their use. In gardens or manorial or palatial parks it often constituted an essential compositional element, e.g. in the garden of Łobzów, the parks of Dębniki or Prokocim. It did not survive in any of them. Later on it also became an important part of the programme of public parks, with pools or ponds located, among other places, in Planty Park and Park Jordana. To this day it brings joy and refreshment to its users in the form of representative fountains and water jets. In the article it was presented just how diverse functions does water play in the composing of Krakow’s areas of greenery—from the detail to the planning of its urban structure. The fact that, particularly recently, a frontal turn has been made towards the Vistula, as there were voices that the city had its back turned to it. At present, public areas that are open towards the water are being designed. Designs of waterfront areas that have recently been completed in Krakow and which constitute a result of competitions, were shown as well. These include the parks in Zakrzówek or near Płaszów lake. This proves that water still remains an inexhaustible source of inspiration and its accessibility in areas of public greenery attracts large amounts of users.
The study objective was to assess the allelopathic impact of the cut aboveground vegetative shoots of the selected lawn cultivars of L. perenne on the decorative value and species composition of the sward, including the share of dicotyledons. The studies were conducted in field conditions. The following indicators of the allelopathic impact of L. perenne were chosen: the share of the sown cultivars and dicotyledons in the lawn sward, general aspect, sward density and overwinter survival in object A, where the cut biomass was left, and in control object B, from which the biomass was removed immediately after cutting. The biomass of ‘Nira’ and ‘Stadion’ cultivars, cut and left on the lawn surface, exhibited auto-allelopathic properties by reducing their own share in the sward. The share of dicotyledons in the sward was reduced to the largest extent in the treatment where the cut biomass of ‘Nira’ cultivar was left. Only the ‘Stadion’ cultivar had a significantly lower sward density and a poorer general aspect of the sward in objects where the cut biomass was left in comparison with the objects where the cut biomass was removed. All the cultivars under study had better overwinter survival results in the objects where the cut biomass was left on the lawn surface.
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