The elongation cycle of protein synthesis involves the delivery of aminoacyl-tRNAs to the A-site of the ribosome, followed by peptide-bond formation and translocation of the tRNAs through the ribosome to reopen the A-site1,2. The translocation reaction is catalyzed by elongation factor G (EF-G) in a GTP-dependent fashion3. Despite the availability of structures of various EF-G-ribosome complexes, the precise mechanism by which tRNAs move through the ribosome still remains unclear. Here we use multiparticle cryo-EM analysis to resolve two previously unseen subpopulations within EF-G-ribosome complexes at sub-nanometer resolution, one of them with a partially translocated tRNA. Comparison of these sub-states reveals that translocation of tRNA on the 30S subunit parallels the swiveling of the 30S-head and is coupled to un-ratcheting of the 30S-body. Since the tRNA maintains contact with the P-site on the 30S-head and simultaneously establishes interaction with the E-site on the 30S-platform, a novel intra-subunit pe/E hybrid state is formed. This state is stabilized by domain IV of EF-G, which interacts with the swiveled 30S-head conformation. These findings provide direct structural and mechanistic insight into the “missing link” in terms of tRNA intermediates involved in the universally conserved translocation process.

Translation elongation factor P (EF-P) is critical for virulence in bacteria. EF-P is present in all bacteria and orthologous to archaeal and eukaryotic initiation factor 5A, yet the biological function has so far remained enigmatic. Here, we demonstrate that EF-P is an elongation factor that enhances translation of polyproline-containing proteins: In the absence of EF-P, ribosomes stall at polyproline stretches, whereas the presence of EF-P alleviates the translational stalling. Moreover, we demonstrate the physiological relevance of EF-P to fine-tune the expression of the polyproline-containing pH receptor CadC to levels necessary for an appropriate stress response. Bacterial, archaeal, and eukaryotic cells have hundreds to thousands of polyproline-containing proteins of diverse function, suggesting that EF-P and a/eIF-5A are critical for copy-number adjustment of multiple pathways across all kingdoms of life.

The ribosome and protein synthesis are major targets within the cell for inhibition by antibiotics, such as the tetracyclines. The tetracycline family of antibiotics represent a large and diverse group of compounds, ranging from the naturally produced chlortetracycline, introduced into medical usage in the 1940s, to second and third generation semi-synthetic derivatives of tetracycline, such as doxycycline, minocycline and more recently the glycylcycline tigecycline. Here we describe the mode of interaction of tetracyclines with the ribosome and mechanism of action of this class of antibiotics to inhibit translation. Additionally, we provide an overview of the diverse mechanisms by which bacteria obtain resistance to tetracyclines, ranging from efflux, drug modification, target mutation and the employment of specialized ribosome protection proteins.

The oxazolidinones represent the first new class of antibiotics to enter into clinical usage within the past 30 years, but their binding site and mechanism of action has not been fully characterized. We have determined the crystal structure of the oxazolidinone linezolid bound to the Deinococcus radiodurans 50S ribosomal subunit. Linezolid binds in the A site pocket at the peptidyltransferase center of the ribosome overlapping the aminoacyl moiety of an A-site bound tRNA as well as many clinically important antibiotics. Binding of linezolid stabilizes a distinct conformation of the universally conserved 23S rRNA nucleotide U2585 that would be nonproductive for peptide bond formation. In conjunction with available biochemical data, we present a model whereby oxazolidinones impart their inhibitory effect by perturbing the correct positioning of tRNAs on the ribosome.

Ribosomes are the protein synthesizing factories of the cell, polymerizing polypeptide chains from their constituent amino acids. However, distinct combinations of amino acids, such as polyproline stretches, cannot be efficiently polymerized by ribosomes, leading to translational stalling. The stalled ribosomes are rescued by the translational elongation factor P (EF-P), which by stimulating peptide-bond formation allows translation to resume. Using metabolic stable isotope labeling and mass spectrometry, we demonstrate in vivo that EF-P is important for expression of not only polyproline-containing proteins, but also for specific subsets of proteins containing diprolyl motifs (XPP/PPX). Together with a systematic in vitro and in vivo analysis, we provide a distinct hierarchy of stalling triplets, ranging from strong stallers, such as PPP, DPP, and PPN to weak stallers, such as CPP, PPR, and PPH, all of which are substrates for EF-P. These findings provide mechanistic insight into how the characteristics of the specific amino acid substrates influence the fundamentals of peptide bond formation.

Here we present an X-ray crystallography structure of the clinically relevant tigecycline antibiotic bound to the 70S ribosome. Our structural and biochemical analysis indicate that the enhanced potency of tigecycline results from a stacking interaction with nucleobase C1054 within the decoding site of the ribosome. Singlemolecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer studies reveal that, during decoding, tigecycline inhibits the initial codon recognition step of tRNA accommodation and prevents rescue by the tetracycline-resistance protein TetM.

Ribosome stalling at polyproline stretches is common and fundamental. In bacteria, translation elongation factor P (EF-P) rescues such stalled ribosomes, but only when it is post-translationally activated. In Escherichia coli, activation of EF-P is achieved by (R)-β-lysinylation and hydroxylation of a conserved lysine. Here we have unveiled a markedly different modification strategy in which a conserved arginine of EF-P is rhamnosylated by a glycosyltransferase (EarP) using dTDP-l-rhamnose as a substrate. This is to our knowledge the first report of N-linked protein glycosylation on arginine in bacteria and the first example in which a glycosylated side chain of a translation elongation factor is essential for function. Arginine-rhamnosylation of EF-P also occurs in clinically relevant bacteria such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa. We demonstrate that the modification is needed to develop pathogenicity, making EarP and dTDP-l-rhamnose-biosynthesizing enzymes ideal targets for antibiotic development.

SUMMARY During protein synthesis, nascent polypeptide chains within the ribosomal tunnel can act in cis to induce ribosome stalling and regulate expression of downstream genes. The Staphylococcus aureus ErmCL leader peptide induces stalling in the presence of clinically important macrolide antibiotics, such as erythromycin, leading to the induction of the downstream macrolide resistance methyltransferase ErmC. Here, we present a cryo-electron microscopy (EM) structure of the erythromycin-dependent ErmCL-stalled ribosome at 3.9 Å resolution. The structure reveals how the ErmCL nascent chain directly senses the presence of the tunnel-bound drug and thereby induces allosteric conformational rearrangements at the peptidyltransferase center (PTC) of the ribosome. ErmCL-induced perturbations of the PTC prevent stable binding and accommodation of the aminoacyl-tRNA at the A-site leading to inhibition of peptide bond formation and translation arrest.