Female sex workers (FSW) are at greater risk for HIV and STIs. A systematic literature review of HIV and STI prevalence and incidence data for FSW in China was conducted to assess current trends. Studies between 1996 and 2010 detailing seroprevalence or incidence data, other laboratory-based tests, and clinical diagnoses of infections among FSW were reviewed. Select articles from Chinese literature around street-based and drug-abusing FSW were also reviewed. Results revealed high median prevalence for a variety of STIs among FSW: active syphilis range 0.8-12.5% (median = 6.9%), herpes range 29.7-70.8% (median = 56.2%), chlamydia range 3.9-58.6% (median = 25.7%), gonorrhea range 2.0-85.4% (median = 16.4%), and trichomoniasis range 7.1-43.2% (median = 12.5%). HIV prevalence has remained relatively low and stable with a range of 0-10.3% (median = 0.6%), with the exception of higher prevalence in several areas of Yunnan and some areas of Guangxi. The FSW who are injecting drug users may be at even greater risk for HIV infection with 12-49% found to be HIV positive and 7-25% self-reporting positive status. A number of gaps in the literature remain, especially in the number of studies that detail prevalence confirmed by laboratory testing or that collect incidence data. Assessment of incidence and prevalence according to sampling methodology appropriate for the population, behavioral risks such as injecting drug use, and diverse venues especially those at the lower end are needed. Theory-based interventions to reduce the incidence and prevalence of HIV/STIs need to be piloted with successful models scaled-up.

The results of this pilot will be used as a basis for a large-scale randomized trial of an intervention with combined culturally and linguistically sensitive MI and NRT components for Chinese and other Asian ethnic groups.

A rapid increase in heterosexual transmission of HIV and a high prevalence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in China signals potential outbreaks of generalized epidemics. A large proportion of heterosexual transmission has been through commercial sex; thus, millions of female sex workers (FSWs) and their clients play a critical role in the country's HIV/STI epidemics. A number of prevention interventions targeting FSWs have been implemented in response to changes in policy toward HIV as well as growing epidemics. This study reviews existing HIV/STI prevention interventions studies targeting FSWs in China. A total of 25 studies (28 articles) were identified from English and Chinese journal databases. Most studies recruited FSWs from entertainment establishments and had small sample sizes of less than 400. A majority employed a simple pre-post design with an open cohort, none applied a randomized controlled trial, and only two studies had a quasi-experimental design. Venue-based knowledge education and condom promotion represented the typical intervention approach. Some adapted internationally validated programs such as Voluntary Counseling and Testing and 100% Condom Use Programs (CUP), but no scale-up data were reported. Significant intervention effects were reported in most studies, especially increases in HIV/STI-related knowledge and condom use rates. Of the nine studies reporting STI rates, the results were mixed; some even reported increased STIs despite higher condom use. We call for more HIV/STI interventions targeting FSWs in China, particularly, interventions with rigorous design and externally validated measures, and more diversity in intervention programs including biomedical and structural interventions as well as innovative intervention delivery. We also advocate that effective intervention programs be translated into sustainable policies and programs that could have an impact on China's HIV and STI epidemics.

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BackgroundChronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is set to become the third most frequent cause of death and also the third largest cause of global morbidity by 2020. In China, where the population is aging rapidly, COPD has become one of the leading causes of disability and a large economic burden. An epidemiological assessment of the COPD in China is required, with a focus on the number of cases living with disease, main determinants of the disease and time trends.MethodsWe systematically searched large Chinese bibliographic databases and English databases to identify spirometry–based epidemiological studies of the prevalence of COPD in China diagnosed according to GOLD criteria. We estimated age– and gender–specific prevalence of COPD using a multilevel mixed–effect logistic regression. We also presented the time trends of COPD between 1990 and 2010 by age, gender and setting (urban vs rural).FindingsIn 1990, the prevalence of COPD ranged from 0.49% (95% CI = 0.29–0.85) in <20 years group to 20.95% (95% CI = 14.04–27.04) in> = 80 years group, and the crude prevalence for China was 2.70% (95% CI = 1.86–3.51). In 2010, the prevalence in <20 years was 0.55% (95% CI = 0.37–1.04) and in> = 80 years was 22.89% (95% CI = 18.13–28.96), with the crude prevalence for China of 3.84% (95% CI = 3.30–4.77). The COPD prevalence in males was about two–fold higher than in females, and it increased with increasing age. Between 1990–2010, the total number of Chinese people living with COPD increased by 66.73%, from 30.90 million (95% CI = 21.28–40.02) in 1990 to 51.52 million (95% CI = 44.26–63.93) in 2010. This increase was most striking in middle age, and greater in females than in males from 30 years up to 64 years. Our estimates, which used an independent approach to acquiring data and development of analytical methods, and were based on a more complete data set, are remarkably similar to those produced recently by the GBD 2013 collaboration, differing by only about 5% in the estimated number of COPD cases in 1990 and by 1% in 2010.ConclusionsCOPD is a highly prevalent disease in China and its importance is growing steadily. The number of people living with COPD has increased substantially between 1990 and 2010. COPD is more frequent in males and in rural areas. Optimised primary and secondary prevention and treatment is urgently needed to counter this growing trend. Improved epidemiological studies will be required to assist development of more effective strategies of prevention and treatment of COPD in China in the next decade and beyond.