Cilia are highly specialized antennae-like cellular organelles. Inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase E (INPP5E) converts PI(4,5)P2 into PI4P and is required for proper ciliary function. Although Inpp5e mutations are associated with ciliopathies in humans and mice, the precise molecular role INPP5E plays in cilia remains unclear. Here, we report that Drosophila INPP5E (dINPP5E) regulates ciliary protein trafficking by controlling the phosphoinositide composition of ciliary membranes. Mutations in dInpp5e lead to hearing deficits due to the mislocalization of dTULP and mechanotransduction channels, Inactive and NOMPC, in chordotonal cilia. Both loss of dINPP5E and ectopic expression of the phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate 5-kinase Skittles increase PI(4,5)P2 levels in the ciliary base. The fact that Skittles expression phenocopies the dInpp5e mutants confirms a central role for PI(4,5)P2 in the regulation of dTULP, Inactive, and NOMPC localization. These data suggest that the spatial localization and levels of PI(4,5)P2 in ciliary membranes are important regulators of ciliary trafficking and function.

Acute ischemic stroke causes significant chronic disability worldwide. We designed this study to clarify the mechanism by which hypothermia helps alleviate acute ischemic stroke. In a middle cerebral artery occlusion model (4 h ischemia without reperfusion), hypothermia effectively reduces mean infarct volume. Hypothermia also prevents neurons in the infarct area from releasing high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), the most well-studied damage-associated molecular pattern protein. By preventing its release, hypothermia also prevents the typical middle cerebral artery occlusion-induced increase in serum HMGB1. We also found that both glycyrrhizin-mediated inhibition of HMGB1 and intracerebroventricular neutralizing antibody treatments before middle cerebral artery occlusion onset diminish infarct volume. This suggests a clear neuroprotective effect of HMGB1 inhibition by hypothermia in the brain. We next used real-time polymerase chain reaction to measure the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in peri-infarct regions. Although middle cerebral artery occlusion increases the expression of interleukin-1β and tissue necrosis factor-α, this elevation is suppressed by both hypothermia and glycyrrhizin treatment. We show that hypothermia reduces the production of inflammatory cytokines and helps salvage peri-infarct regions from the propagation of ischemic injury via HMGB1 blockade. In addition to suggesting a potential mechanism for hypothermia’s therapeutic effects, our results suggest HMGB1 modulation may lengthen the therapeutic window for stroke treatments.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13041-016-0260-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Our series suggests that two of three individuals who undergo ureteral stent removal experience symptoms thereafter. Individuals undergoing stone basket extraction and those who experienced stent discomfort were more likely to have pain after stent removal. Anticholinergic use and stents indwelling for a longer time were associated with less pain after stent removal.