BackgroundInfections with Babesia bovis, Babesia bigemina, Theileria species and Anaplasma marginale are endemic in Kenya yet there is a lack of adequate information on their genotypes. This study established the genetic diversities of the above tick-borne hemoparasites infecting cattle in Kenya.MethodsNested PCR and sequencing were used to determine the prevalence and genetic diversity of the above parasites in 192 cattle blood samples collected from Ngong and Machakos farms. B. bovis spherical body protein 4, B. bigemina rhoptry-associated protein 1a, A. marginale major surface protein 5, Theileria spp. 18S rRNA, T. parva p104 and T. orientalis major piroplasm surface protein were used as the marker genes.ResultsB. bovis, B. bigemina, T. parva, T. velifera, T. taurotragi, T. mutans and A. marginale were prevalent in both farms, whereas T. ovis, Theileria sp. (buffalo) and T. orientalis were found only in Ngong farm. Co-infections were observed in more than 50 % of positive samples in both farms. Babesia parasites and A. marginale sequences were highly conserved while T. parva and T. orientalis were polymorphic. Cattle-derived T. parva was detected in Machakos farm. However, cattle and buffalo–derived Theileria were detected in Ngong farm suggesting interactions between cattle and wild buffaloes. Generally, the pathogens detected in Kenya were genetically related to the other African isolates but different from the isolates in other continents.ConclusionsThe current findings reaffirm the endemicity and co-infection of cattle with tick-borne hemoparasites, and the role of wildlife in pathogens transmission and population genetics in Kenya.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-015-1106-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

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We describe here the clinical significance of coinfection with Theileria orientalis and Babesia ovata in cattle. Anemia status in a herd of dairy cattle in Japan was investigated in relation to infection with these parasites. Our findings indicate that while B. ovata infection might not be the primary cause of anemia in the cattle, it may contribute to the clinical development of anemia in animals coinfected with both B. ovata and T. orientalis .

Toxoplasmosis is a widely distributed zoonotic infection caused by the obligate intracellular apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. It is mainly transmitted through the ingestion of oocysts shed by an infected cat acting as its definitive host. The key to effective control and treatment of toxoplasmosis is prompt and accurate detection of T. gondii infection. Several laboratory diagnostic methods have been established, including the most commonly used serological assays such as the dye test (DT), direct or modified agglutination test (DAT/MAT), indirect hemagglutination test (IHA), latex agglutination test (LAT), indirect immunofluorescent test (IFAT), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA), immunochromatographic tests (ICT), and the western blot. Nonetheless, creating specific and reliable approaches for serodiagnosis of T. gondii infection, and differentiating between acute and chronic phases of infection remains a challenge. This review provides information on the current trends in the serodiagnosis of human toxoplasmosis. It highlights the advantages of the use of recombinant proteins for serological testing and provides insight into the possible future direction of these methods.

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ABSTRACT. Anaplasma marginale has been detected in the Philippines only by peripheral blood smear examination and serological methods. This study generally aimed to molecularly detect and characterize A. marginale in cattle and ticks in Cebu, Philippines. A total of 12 bovine blood samples and 60 Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus ticks were collected on the Cebu Island in 2011. 16S rRNA-based screening-PCR and DNA sequencing revealed 8 cattle (66.7%) and 8 ticks (13.3%) to be positive for A. marginale, and 1 tick (1.7%) to be positive for A. centrale. Selected positive DNA samples were further characterized based on 16S rRNA (longer sequence), Msp5, Msp1α, gltA and groEL genes for phylogenetic analyses. Sequence identities of partial DNA fragments of A. marginale from the Philippines revealed 99.1-100% (16S rRNA, gltA, groEL and Msp5) and 94.3-97.6% (Msp1α) identities to the closest isolates from other countries. Moreover, sequence analysis of the Msp1α, gene showed 3 variants, including a case of co-infection with 2 variants. Phylogenetic analyses based on Msp1α and Msp5 genes revealed that Philippine A. marginale isolates formed a monophyletic lineage, and were phylogenetically related to Brazilian and Chinese isolates. On the other hand, a highly specific and sensitive nested PCR based on groEL, with a detection limit of 2 copies/PCR, was developed to detect A. marginale in the Philippines. This study reported the first molecular detection and characterization of A. marginale in cattle and R. microplus in Cebu, Philippines.

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