• The influence of known genetic variants on warfarin dose differs by race.• Race-specific pharmacogenetic algorithms, rather than race-adjusted algorithms, should be used to guide warfarin dosing.Warfarin dosing algorithms adjust for race, assigning a fixed effect size to each predictor, thereby attenuating the differential effect by race. Attenuation likely occurs in both race groups but may be more pronounced in the less-represented race group. Therefore, we evaluated whether the effect of clinical (age, body surface area [BSA], chronic kidney disease [CKD], and amiodarone use) and genetic factors (CYP2C9*2, *3, *5, *6, *11, rs12777823, VKORC1, and CYP4F2) on warfarin dose differs by race using regression analyses among 1357 patients enrolled in a prospective cohort study and compared predictive ability of race-combined vs race-stratified models. Differential effect of predictors by race was assessed using predictor-race interactions in race-combined analyses. Warfarin dose was influenced by age, BSA, CKD, amiodarone use, and CYP2C9*3 and VKORC1 variants in both races, by CYP2C9*2 and CYP4F2 variants in European Americans, and by rs12777823 in African Americans. CYP2C9*2 was associated with a lower dose only among European Americans (20.6% vs 3.0%, P < .001) and rs12777823 only among African Americans (12.3% vs 2.3%, P 5 .006). Although VKORC1 was associated with dose decrease in both races, the proportional decrease was higher among European Americans (28.9% vs 19.9%, P 5 .003) compared with African Americans. Race-stratified analysis improved dose prediction in both race groups compared with race-combined analysis. We demonstrate that the effect of predictors on warfarin dose differs by race, which may explain divergent findings reported by recent warfarin pharmacogenetic trials. We recommend that warfarin dosing algorithms should be stratified by race rather than adjusted for race. (Blood. 2015;126(4):539-545)

Background A functional polymorphism in the inhibitory IgG-Fc receptor FcγRIIB influences intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) response in Kawasaki Disease (KD) a vasculitis preferentially affecting the coronary arteries in children. We tested the hypothesis that the polymorphisms in the activating receptors (Fcγ RIIA, Fcγ RIIIA and Fcγ RIIIB) also influence susceptibility, IVIG treatment response, and coronary artery disease (CAD) in KD patients. Methods and Results We genotyped polymorphisms in the activating FcγRIIA, FcγRIIIA and FcγRIIIB genes using pyrosequencing in 443 KD patients, including 266 trios and 150 single parent-child pairs, in northwest US and genetically determined race with 155 ancestry information markers. We used the FBAT program to test for transmission disequilibrium and further generated pseudo-sibling controls for comparisons to the cases. The FcγRIIA-131H variant showed an association with KD (p = 0.001) with ORadditive = 1.51 [1.16–1.96], p = 0.002) for the primary combined population, which persisted in both Caucasian (p = .04) and Asian (p = .01) subgroups and is consistent with the recent genome-wide association study. We also identified over-transmission of FcγRIIIB-NA1 among IVIG non-responders (p = 0.0002), and specifically to Caucasian IVIG non-responders (p = 0.007). Odds ratios for overall and Caucasian non-responders were respectively 3.67 [1.75–7.66], p = 0.0006 and 3.60 [1.34–9.70], p = 0.01. Excess NA1 transmission also occurred to KD with CAD (ORadditive = 2.13 [1.11–4.0], p = 0.02). Conclusion A common variation in FcγRIIA is associated with increased KD susceptibility. The FcγRIIIB-NA1, which confers higher affinity for IgG compared to NA2, is a determining factor for treatment response. These activating FcγRs play an important role in KD pathogenesis and mechanism of IVIG anti-inflammatory.

Despite the introduction of direct acting oral anticoagulants, warfarin remains the most commonly prescribed oral anticoagulant. However, warfarin therapy is plagued by the large inter-and intrapatient variability. The variability in dosing fueled research to identify clinical and genetic predictors and develop more accurate dosing algorithms. Observational studies have demonstrated the significant impact of single nucleotide polymorphisms in CYP2C9 and VKORC1 on warfarin dose in patients of European ancestry and African-Americans. This evidence supported the design and conduct of clinical trials to assess whether genotype-guided dosing results in improved anticoagulation control and outcomes. The trial results have shown discordance by race, with pharmacogenetic algorithms improving dose and anticoagulation control among European ancestry patients compared with African-American patients. Herein, we review the evidence from observational and interventional studies, highlight the need for inclusion of minority race groups and propose the need to develop race specific dosing algorithms.

Summary Objective The p.V433M in cytochrome P450 4F2 (rs2108622, CYP4F2*3) is associated with higher warfarin dose and lower risk of hemorrhage among European Americans. Herein, we evaluate the influence of CYP4F2*3 on warfarin dose, time to target INR and stable dose, proportion of time spent in target range (PTTR), as well as the risk of overanticoagulation and hemorrhage among European and African Americans. Design CYP4F2*3 was genotyped in 1238 patients initiated on warfarin in a prospective inception cohort. Multivariable linear regression was used to assess warfarin dose and PTTR; proportional hazards analysis was performed to evaluate time to target INR and stable dose, overanticoagulation, and hemorrhage. Setting Two outpatient anticoagulation clinics Participants 1238 anticoagulated patients Outcomes Warfarin dose (mg/day), time to target INR and stable dose, PTTR, over anticoagulation (INR>4), and major hemorrhage. Results Minor allele frequency for the CYP4F2*3 variant was 30.3% among European Americans and 8.4% among African Americans. CYP4F2*3 was associated with higher dose among European Americans but not African Americans. Compared to CYP4F2*1/*1, *1/*3 was associated with a statistically nonsignificant increase in dose (4.5%, p=0.22) and *3/*3 was associated with a statistically significant increase in dose (13.2% , p=0.02). CYP4F2 genotype did not influence time to target INR, time to stable dose, or PTTR in either race group. CYP4F2*3/*3 was associated with a 31% lower risk of over anticoagulation (p=0.06). Incidence of hemorrhage was lower among participants with CYP4F2 *3/*3 compared to *1/*3 or *1/*1 (IRR=0.45; 95% CI: 0.14 – 1.11; p=0.09). After controlling for covariates, the CYP4F2 *3/*3 was associated with a 52% lower risk of hemorrhage although this was not statistically significant (p=0.24). Conclusion Possession of CYP4F2*3 variant influences warfarin dose among European Americans but not African Americans. The CYP4F2-dose, CYP4F2-overanticoagulation, and CYP4F2-hemorrhage association follows a recessive pattern with possession of CYP4F2*3/*3 genotype likely demonstrating a protective effect. These findings need further confirmation.

In a real-world setting, despite achieving better anticoagulation control, elderly patients had a higher risk of major hemorrhagic events. As the population ages and the candidacy for oral anticoagulation increases, strategies that mitigate the elevated risk of hemorrhage need to be identified.