Agricultural pesticide use and its associated environmental harms is widespread throughout much of the world. Efforts to mitigate this harm have largely been focused on reducing pesticide contamination of the water and air, as runoff and pesticide drift are the most significant sources of offsite pesticide movement. Yet pesticide contamination of the soil can also result in environmental harm. Pesticides are often applied directly to soil as drenches and granules and increasingly in the form of seed coatings, making it important to understand how pesticides impact soil ecosystems. Soils contain an abundance of biologically diverse organisms that perform many important functions such as nutrient cycling, soil structure maintenance, carbon transformation, and the regulation of pests and diseases. Many terrestrial invertebrates have declined in recent decades. Habitat loss and agrichemical pollution due to agricultural intensification have been identified as major driving factors. Here, we review nearly 400 studies on the effects of pesticides on non-target invertebrates that have egg, larval, or immature development in the soil. This review encompasses 275 unique species, taxa or combined taxa of soil organisms and 284 different pesticide active ingredients or unique mixtures of active ingredients. We identified and extracted relevant data in relation to the following endpoints: mortality, abundance, biomass, behavior, reproduction, biochemical biomarkers, growth, richness and diversity, and structural changes. This resulted in an analysis of over 2,800 separate “tested parameters,” measured as a change in a specific endpoint following exposure of a specific organism to a specific pesticide. We found that 70.5% of tested parameters showed negative effects, whereas 1.4% and 28.1% of tested parameters showed positive or no significant effects from pesticide exposure, respectively. In addition, we discuss general effect trends among pesticide classes, taxa, and endpoints, as well as data gaps. Our review indicates that pesticides of all types pose a clear hazard to soil invertebrates. Negative effects are evident in both lab and field studies, across all studied pesticide classes, and in a wide variety of soil organisms and endpoints. The prevalence of negative effects in our results underscores the need for soil organisms to be represented in any risk analysis of a pesticide that has the potential to contaminate soil, and for any significant risk to be mitigated in a way that will specifically reduce harm to soil organisms and to the many important ecosystem services they provide.

Clothianidin primarily influenced arthropod communities during the 4 weeks following planting, with disruptions to major natural enemy taxa, but communities showed trends toward recovery at the later corn stages. While the insecticide suppressed multiple herbivores, none were economically damaging to corn; thus, the pest suppression benefits of clothianidin observed in this study did not justify the non-target impacts. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

1. While many studies have investigated non-target impacts of neonicotinoid seed treatments (NSTs), they usually take place within a single crop and focus on specific pest or beneficial arthropod taxa.2. We compared the impacts of three seed treatments to an untreated control: imidacloprid + fungicide products, thiamethoxam + fungicide products and fungicide products alone in a 3-year crop rotation of full-season soybean, winter wheat, doublecropped soybean and maize. Specifically, we quantified neonicotinoid residues in the soil and in weedy winter annual flower buds and examined treatment impacts on soil and foliar arthropod communities as well as on plant growth and yield.3. Unquantifiably low amounts of insecticide were found in winter annual flowers of one species in one site year, which did not correspond with our treatments.Although low levels of insecticide residues were present in the soil, residues were not persistent. Residues were highest in the final year of the study, suggesting some accumulation.4. We observed variable impacts of NSTs on the arthropod community; principle response curve and redundancy analyses exhibited occasional treatment effects, with treatments impacting the abundance of various taxa, including predators and parasitoids. Overall, foliar taxa were more impacted than soil taxa, and the fungicides occasionally affected communities and individual taxa. 5. Pest pressure was low throughout the study, and although pest numbers were reduced by the insecticides, corresponding increases in yield were not observed.6. Synthesis and applications. Pesticide seed treatments can impact arthropod taxa, including important natural enemies even when environmental persistence and active ingredient concentrations are low. The foliar community in winter wheat showed that in some cases, these impacts can last for several months after planting. Given the low pest pressure and lack of yield improvement in full-season soybean, double-cropped soybean, winter wheat and maize, we did not observe benefits that could justify the risks associated with neonicotinoid seed treatment (NST) use. Our results suggest that NSTs are not warranted in Maryland grain production, outside of specific instances of high pest pressure. | 937Journal of Applied Ecology DUBEY Et al.

311. While many studies have investigated non-target impacts of neonicotinoid seed treatments 32 (NSTs), they usually take place within a single crop and focus on specific pest or beneficial 33 arthropod taxa. 34 2. We compared the impacts of three seed treatments to an untreated control: imidacloprid + 35 fungicide products, thiamethoxam + fungicide products, and fungicide products alone in a three- 36 year crop rotation of full-season soybean, winter wheat, double-cropped soybean and maize. 37Specifically, we quantified neonicotinoid residues in the soil and in weedy winter annual flower 38 buds and examined treatment impacts on soil and foliar arthropod communities, and on plant 39 growth and yield. 40 3. Trace amounts of insecticide were found in winter annual flowers of one species in one site 41year, which did not correspond with our treatments. Although low levels of insecticide residues 42 were present in the soil, residues were not persistent. Residues were highest in the final year of 43 the study, suggesting some accumulation. 44 4. We observed variable impacts of NSTs on the arthropod community; principle response curve 45 analysis, diversity and evenness values exhibited occasional community disturbances, and 46 treatments impacted the abundance of various taxa. Overall, imidacloprid had a greater effect 47 than thiamethoxam, with the fungicide only treatment also occasionally impacting communities 48 and individual taxa.49 5. Pest pressure was low throughout the study, and although pest numbers were reduced by the 50 insecticides no corresponding increases in yield were observed. However, the fungicide products 51 contributed to higher yields in wheat.52 6. Synthesis and applications. Pesticide seed treatments can disturb arthropod communities, even 53 when environmental persistence and active ingredient concentrations are low. The foliar 54 3community in wheat and maize exhibited a trend of increasing disturbance throughout the 55 sampling period, suggesting that recovery from the impacts of NSTs is not always rapid. Our 56 study is among the first to demonstrate that seed applied fungicides alone can disrupt arthropod 57 communities in agroecosystems and highlights the need for further investigation into the impacts 58 of seed applied fungicides. 59 Key words 60 Fungicides; Imidacloprid; Glycine max L. Merr.; Neonicotinoid residues; Thiamethoxam; 61 Triticum spp.; Zea mays L.;62

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The United States STEM workforce has yet to reflect the demographics of the larger population. This discrepancy begins at the base of the STEM pipeline with a significant lack of minority STEM K-12 teachers to serve as mentors and role models to minority students. Research has shown that minority students’ exposure to same-race teachers increased academic output and education attainment up to 32%. Unfortunately, minority teachers face a revolving-door effect: the cycle of increased recruitment countered by a high turnover amongst minority teachers compared to their white counterparts. Minority teachers who leave the profession consistently cite negative teaching environments, discrimination, and lack of support as the main drivers of their decision to quit teaching. The Maryland state legislature recently passed the Blueprint for Maryland’s Future Act, which attempts to address teacher recruitment and retention more comprehensively. Here, we go beyond the Blueprint’s baseline tools to recommend targeted strategies to recruit and retain minority STEM K-12 teachers in Maryland. Through the creation of a robust peer mentorship pipeline between new and experienced teachers, prioritization of school staff diversity and inclusion training, and the promotion of teacher autonomy, we will increase minority student education attainment and encourage the growth of a diverse STEM workforce in Maryland.

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