Self-renewal and pluripotency are hallmarks of embryonic stem cells (ESCs). However, the signaling pathways that trigger their transition from selfrenewal to differentiation remain elusive. Here, we report that calcineurin-NFAT signaling is both necessary and sufficient to switch ESCs from an undifferentiated state to lineage-specific cells and that the inhibition of this pathway can maintain long-term ESC self-renewal independent of leukemia inhibitory factor. Mechanistically, this pathway converges with the Erk1/2 pathway to regulate Src expression and promote the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), a process required for lineage specification in response to differentiation stimuli. Furthermore, calcineurin-NFAT signaling is activated when the earliest differentiation event occurs in mouse embryos, and its inhibition disrupts extraembryonic lineage development. Collectively, our results demonstrate that the NFAT and Erk1/2 cascades form a signaling switch for early lineage segregation in mouse ESCs and provide significant insights into the regulation of the balance between ESC selfrenewal and early lineage specification.

Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) possess the capacity to proliferate indefinitely in an undifferentiated state and to differentiate into various cell types in an organism. However, the critical question of how self-renewal and differentiation are precisely regulated in ESCs is not entirely understood at present. Here, we report the essential role of Tbx3, a pluripotency-related transcription factor of the T-box gene family, for both the maintenance of self-renewal of mouse ESCs and for their differentiation into extraembryonic endoderm (ExEn). We show that Tbx3 is highly expressed in ExEn cells in addition to undifferentiated ESCs. Knockdown of Tbx3 expression using tetracycline-regulated Tbx3 siRNA resulted in the attenuation of ESC self-renewal ability and aberrant differentiation processes, including reduced ExEn differentiation but enhanced ectoderm and trophectoderm differentiation. Conversely, inducible forced expression of Tbx3 triggered ExEn lineage commitment. Mechanistically, Tbx3 directly activated the expression of Gata6, an essential regulator of ExEn. Interestingly, Tbx3 modulated H3K27me3 modification and the association of the PRC2 complex with the promoter region of Gata6. Taken together, the results of this study revealed a previously unappreciated role of a pluripotency factor in ExEn differentiation. Additionally, our data reveal that Tbx3 may function through direct binding and epigenetic modification of histones on the Gata6 promoter to maintain the ExEn differentiation potential of ESCs.The mouse blastocyst contains a trophectodermal epithelium surrounding an inner cell mass that later gives rise to primitive endoderm and epiblast cells. The primitive endoderm will develop into extraembryonic endoderm (ExEn), 2 which ultimately contributes to the yolk sac, whereas the epiblast contains pluripotent cells that generate all of the cell types of the three embryonic germ layers (ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm) and some extraembryonic tissues (1, 2). Mouse embryonic stem cells (ESCs) derived from the inner cell mass of blastocyst-stage embryos retain the capacity for unlimited self-renewal and their full developmental potential when cultured in vitro in the presence of leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF). Withdrawal of LIF leads to the disruption of ESC selfrenewal and extensive differentiation into various lineages. Understanding the mechanisms governing self-renewal and early lineage commitment is an essential step toward the future utilization of ESC derivatives in clinical applications. The unique properties of ESCs are conferred by a set of pluripotency-associated transcription factors, including Oct4, Sox2, and Nanog (3-6). Recent studies of the transcriptome and protein interactome of ESCs have further revealed the key role of Oct4/Sox2/Nanog-centered transcriptional and protein interaction networks in controlling ESC identity (7-11). However, the precise molecular mechanisms through which ESCs determine the cell fate between self-renewal and lineage commitment remain largely unknown. In additi...

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POU transcription factor OCT4 not only plays an essential role in maintaining the pluripotent and self-renewing state of embryonic stem (ES) cells but also acts as a cell fate determinant through a gene dosage effect. However, the molecular mechanisms that control the intracellular OCT4 protein level remain elusive. Here, we report that human WWP2, an E3 ubiquitin (Ub)-protein ligase, interacts with OCT4 specifically through its WW domain and enhances Ub modification of OCT4 both in vitro and in vivo. We first demonstrated that endogenous OCT4 in human ES cells can be post-translationally modified by Ub. Furthermore, we found that WWP2 promoted degradation of OCT4 through the 26S proteasome in a dosage-dependent manner, and the active site cysteine residue of WWP2 was required for both its enzymatic activity and proteolytic effect on OCT4. Remarkably, our data show that the endogenous OCT4 protein level was significantly elevated when WWP2 expression was downregulated by specific RNA interference (RNAi), suggesting that WWP2 is an important regulator for maintaining a proper OCT4 protein level in human ES cells. Moreover, northern blot analysis showed that the WWP2 transcript was widely present in diverse human tissues/organs and highly expressed in undifferentiated human ES cells. However, its expression level was quickly decreased after human ES cells differentiated, indicating that WWP2 expression might be developmentally regulated. Our findings demonstrate that WWP2 is an important regulator of the OCT4 protein level in human ES cells.

Pancreatic cancer is the fourth leading cause of cancer-related mortality in the world. Pancreatic cancer can be localized, locally advanced or metastatic. The median 1- and 5-year survival rates are 25% and 6%, respectively. Epigenetic modifications such as DNA methylation play a significant role during both normal human development and cancer progression. To investigate epigenetic regulation of genes in the tumor-initiating population of pancreatic cancer cells, which are also termed cancer stem cells (CSCs), we conducted epigenetic arrays in PANC1 and HPAC pancreatic cancer cell lines and compared the global DNA methylation status of CpG promoters in invasive cells, demonstrated to be CSCs, to their non-invasive counterparts, or non-CSCs. Our results suggested that the NF-κB pathway is one of the most activated pathways in pancreatic CSCs. In agreement with this, we determined that upon treatment with NF-κB pathway inhibitors, the stem cell-like properties of cells are significantly disrupted. Moreover, SOX9, demethylated in CSCs, is shown to play a crucial role in the invasion process. Additionally, we found a potential NF-κB binding site located in the SOX9 promoter, and determined that the NF-κB subunit p65 positively regulates SOX9 expression by binding to its promoter directly. This interaction can be efficiently blocked by NF-κB inhibitors. Thus, our work establishes a link between the classical NF-κB signaling transduction pathway and the invasiveness of pancreatic CSCs, which may result in the identification of novel signals and molecules that function at an epigenetic level, and could potentially be targeted for pharmaceutical investigations and clinical trials.

Self-renewal and differentiation of embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are controlled by intracellular transcriptional factors and extracellular factor-activated signaling pathways. Transcription factor Oct4 is a key player maintaining ESCs in an undifferentiated state, whereas the Erk/MAPK pathway is known to be important for ESC differentiation. However, the manner in which intracellular pluripotency factors modulate extracellular factor-activated signaling pathways in ESCs is not well understood. Here, we report identification of a target gene of Oct4, serine/threonine kinase 40 (Stk40), which is able to activate the Erk/MAPK pathway and induce extraembryonicendoderm (ExEn) differentiation in mouse ESCs. Interestingly, cells overexpressing Stk40 exclusively contribute to the ExEn layer of chimeric embryos when injected into host blastocysts. In contrast, deletion of Stk40 in ESCs markedly reduces ExEn differentiation in vitro. Mechanistically, Stk40 interacts with Rcn2, which also activates Erk1/2 to induce ExEn specification in mouse ESCs. Moreover, Rcn2 proteins are specifically located in the cytoplasm of the ExEn layer of early mouse embryos. Importantly, knockdown of Rcn2 blocks Stk40-activated Erk1/2 and ESC differentiation. Therefore, our study establishes a link between the pluripotency factor Oct4 and the Erk/MAPK signaling pathway, and it uncovers cooperating signals in the Erk/ MAPK activation that control ExEn differentiation.embryonic stem cells | Rcn2 | Ras | Gata6

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) associated with Argonaute proteins (AGOs) regulate gene expression in mammals. miRNA 3’ ends are subject to frequent sequence modifications, which have been proposed to affect miRNA stability. However, the underlying mechanism is not well understood. Here, by genetic and biochemical studies as well as deep sequencing analyses, we find that AGO mutations disrupting miRNA 3’ binding are sufficient to trigger extensive miRNA 3’ modifications in HEK293T cells and in cancer patients. Comparing these modifications in TUT4, TUT7 and DIS3L2 knockout cells, we find that TUT7 is more robust than TUT4 in oligouridylating mature miRNAs, which in turn leads to their degradation by the DIS3L2 exonuclease. Our findings indicate a decay machinery removing AGO-associated miRNAs with an exposed 3’ end. A set of endogenous miRNAs including miR-7, miR-222 and miR-769 are targeted by this machinery presumably due to target-directed miRNA degradation.

Cellular non-membranous RNA-granules, P-bodies (RNA processing bodies, PB) and stress granules (SG), are important components of the innate immune response to virus invasion. Mechanisms governing how a virus modulates PB formation remain elusive. Here, we report the important roles of GW182 and DDX6, but not Dicer, Ago2 and DCP1A, in PB formation, and that Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) lytic infection reduces PB formation through several specific interactions with viral RNA-binding protein ORF57. The wild-type ORF57, but not its N-terminal dysfunctional mutant, inhibits PB formation by interacting with the N-terminal GW-domain of GW182 and the N-terminal domain of Ago2, two major components of PB. KSHV ORF57 also induces nuclear Ago2 speckles. Homologous HSV-1 ICP27, but not EBV EB2, shares this conserved inhibitory function with KSHV ORF57. By using time-lapse confocal microscopy of HeLa cells co-expressing GFP-tagged GW182, we demonstrated that viral ORF57 inhibits primarily the scaffolding of GW182 at the initial stage of PB formation. Consistently, KSHV-infected iSLK/Bac16 cells with reduced GW182 expression produced far fewer PB and SG, but 100-fold higher titer of infectious KSHV virions when compared to cells with normal GW182 expression. Altogether, our data provide the first evidence that a DNA virus evades host innate immunity by encoding an RNA-binding protein that promotes its replication by blocking PB formation.