Graphene plasmons were predicted to possess simultaneous ultrastrong field confinement and very low damping, enabling new classes of devices for deep-subwavelength metamaterials, single-photon nonlinearities, extraordinarily strong light-matter interactions and nano-optoelectronic switches. Although all of these great prospects require low damping, thus far strong plasmon damping has been observed, with both impurity scattering and many-body effects in graphene proposed as possible explanations. With the advent of van der Waals heterostructures, new methods have been developed to integrate graphene with other atomically flat materials. In this Article we exploit near-field microscopy to image propagating plasmons in high-quality graphene encapsulated between two films of hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN). We determine the dispersion and plasmon damping in real space. We find unprecedentedly low plasmon damping combined with strong field confinement and confirm the high uniformity of this plasmonic medium. The main damping channels are attributed to intrinsic thermal phonons in the graphene and dielectric losses in the h-BN. The observation and in-depth understanding of low plasmon damping is the key to the development of graphene nanophotonic and nano-optoelectronic devices.

The response of an electron system to electromagnetic fields with sharp spatial variations is strongly dependent on quantum electronic properties, even in ambient conditions, but difficult to access experimentally. We use propagating graphene plasmons, together with an engineered dielectric-metallic environment, to probe the graphene electron liquid and unveil its detailed electronic response at short wavelengths. The near-field imaging experiments reveal a parameter-free match with the full theoretical quantum description of the massless Dirac electron gas, in which we identify three types of quantum effects as keys to understanding the experimental response of graphene to short-ranged terahertz electric fields. The first type is of single-particle nature and is related to shape deformations of the Fermi surface during a plasmon oscillation. The second and third types are a many-body effect controlled by the inertia and compressibility of the interacting electron liquid in graphene. We demonstrate how, in principle, our experimental approach can determine the full spatiotemporal response of an electron system.The quantum physics of electron systems involves complex short-distance interactions and motions that depend sensitively on electron correlations and Fermi surface deformations.1,2 These are often considered irrelevant in optical and transport measurements, which probe the response to electrical fields with long length scales. When free electron systems are driven by electric fields varying rapidly in both time and space, however, the response pattern in dynamical current reveals these complex shortrange effects. This aspect of electron response, known as non-locality or spatial dispersion in conductivity, arises due to the internal spreading of energy via the moving electrons. Even in ambient conditions (as Fermi liquid parameters depend on temperature weakly 1,2 ), the spatial dispersion in an electron system retains a detailed connection to Fermi-surface and electron-electron correlation effects, and hence it provides a unique window into quantum theories of electron systems without requiring extremes of low temperature or high magnetic field. Unfortunately, these quantum regimes cannot be accessed by standard optical and transport probes.Plasmons-electric waves resulting from an inertial electron conductivity combined with electric restoring * Marco.Polini@iit.it † frank.koppens@icfo.eu forces-can act as a carrier of the spatiotemporal electric fields necessary to probe non-locality. All systems exhibit non-local effects for plasmon wavelengths approaching the electronic Fermi wavelength λ F , which has been confirmed in experimental studies of metals and semiconductor two-dimensional (2D) electron gases. 3-5 Such experiments have however led to challenges in quantitative interpretation, due to strong interactions that go beyond standard (e.g. random phase approximation) theoretical treatments, 3,4 and possible complications by edge effects and tunneling. 5-9In graphene, it is possible to access a diff...

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*Graphene is a promising material for ultrafast and broadband photodetection. Earlier studies have addressed the general operation of graphene-based photothermoelectric devices and the switching speed, which is limited by the charge carrier cooling time, on the order of picoseconds. However, the generation of the photovoltage could occur at a much faster timescale, as it is associated with the carrier heating time. Here, we measure the photovoltage generation time and find it to be faster than 50 fs. As a proof-of-principle application of this ultrafast photodetector, we use graphene to directly measure, electrically, the pulse duration of a sub-50 fs laser pulse. The observation that carrier heating is ultrafast suggests that energy from absorbed photons can be efficiently transferred to carrier heat. To study this, we examine the spectral response and find a constant spectral responsivity of between 500 and 1,500 nm. This is consistent with efficient electron heating. These results are promising for ultrafast femtosecond and broadband photodetector applications. Photovoltage generation through the photothermoelectric (PTE) effect occurs when light is focused at the interface of monolayer and bilayer graphene, or at the interface between regions of graphene with different Fermi energies E F (refs 1-6). In such graphene PTE devices-which operate over a large spectral range 7,8 that extends even into the far-infrared 9 -local heating of electrons by absorbed light, in combination with a difference in Seebeck coefficients between the two regions, gives rise to a PTE voltage V PTE = (S 2 − S 1 )(T el − T 0 ). Here, S 1 and S 2 are the Seebeck coefficients of regions 1 and 2, respectively, T el is the hot electron temperature after photoexcitation and electron heating, and T 0 is the temperature of the electrode heat sinks. The performance of PTE graphene devices is intimately connected to the dynamics of the photoexcited electrons and holes, which have mainly been studied in graphene samples through ultrafast optical pumpprobe measurements [10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17] . As shown in Fig. 1a, the dynamics start with (i) photoexcitation and electron-hole pair generation, followed by (ii) electron heating through carrier-carrier scattering, in competition with lattice heating, both of which take place on a sub-100 fs timescale, and finally (iii) electron cooling by thermal equilibration with the lattice, which takes place on a picosecond timescale. The effect of the picosecond cooling step (iii) on the switching speed of graphene devices has been studied using timeresolved photovoltage scanning experiments with ∼200 fs time resolution [18][19][20] . These studies showed that the picosecond electron cooling time limits the intrinsic photo-switching rate of these devices to a few hundred gigahertz, because faster switching would reduce the switching contrast, as the system does not have time to return to the ground state. Indeed, gigahertz switching speeds have been demonstrated in graphene-based devices [21][22][23]...

The graphene photodetector is illustrated in Fig. 1a. A monolayer graphene sheet was encapsulated between two h-BN layers 15 . The h-BN(13 nm)-graphene-h-BN (42 nm) heterostructure is placed on top of a pair of 15-nm-thick AuPd gates, which are laterally separated by a gap of 50 nm. Applying individual voltages to the gates allows for controlling independently the carrier concentrations n 1 and n 2 in the graphene sheet at the left and right sides of the gap.In Fig. 1a we also introduce the concept of THz photocurrent nanoscopy, and its application for GPs mapping. The setup is based on a s-SNOM (Neaspec), where the metal tip is illuminated with the THz beam of a gas laser (SIFIR-50 from Coherent, providing output power in the range of a few 10 mW). Owing to a lightning-rod effect, the incident field is concentrated at the tip apex yielding a THz nanofocus 16 . Once brought into close proximity of the sample, the near fields of the nanofocus induce a current in the graphene sheet, similar to IR photocurrent nanoscopy 14,17 . Recording the current as a function of the tip position yields nanoscale-resolved THz photocurrent images. For the current measurement, the graphene is contacted electrically in a lateral geometry (i.e. metal contacts were fabricated at both sides of the heterostructure, as shown in Fig. 1a). Analogously to s-SNOM 18 and scanning photocurrent nanoscopy 14, 17 , we isolate the near-field contribution to the total photocurrent, I PC , by (i) oscillating the tip vertically at frequency Ω and (ii) demodulating the detector signal at 2Ω. This 3 technical procedure is required because of the background photocurrent generated by the diffraction limited illumination spot. We achieved a spatial resolution of about 50 nm (supplementary information S1), which is an improvement of nearly 4 orders of magnitude compared to diffraction-limited THz imaging. Fig. 1b shows a photocurrent image of the photodetector, recorded at 2.52 THz (λ 0 = 118.8 µm). Choosing graphene charge carrier densities n 1 = 0.77 and n 2 = -0.77x10 12 cm -2 , we generate a sharp pn-junction in the graphene above the gap between the gates.We observe a strong near-field photocurrent, I PC , which is localized to an about 1 µm wide region centred above the gap (central part of Fig. 1b). It can be explained by a photo-thermoelectric effect: due to a variation of the local Seebeck coefficient S in graphene (generated by the carrier density gradient), a local temperature gradient (caused by the THz nanofocus at the tip apex) generates a net charge current 14,17 .Because the variation of the carrier concentration -and thus ΔS -is largest between the two gates, we expect a maximum in the photocurrent at this location. In Fig. 1b, however, we observe a slight decrease of the photocurrent between the gates. We explain it by the reduced near-field intensity when the tip is above the gap, owing to the weaker near-field coupling between the tip and the metal gates. To corroborate the photo-thermoelectric origin of the THz photocurrent, we carrie...

12Controlling, detecting and generating prop-13 agating plasmons by all-electrical means is at 14 the heart of on-chip nano-optical processing.

Optoelectronic devices utilizing graphene have demonstrated unique capabilities and performances beyond state-of-the-art technologies. However, requirements in terms of device quality and uniformity are demanding. A major roadblock towards high-performance devices are nanoscale variations of the graphene device properties, impacting their macroscopic behaviour. Here we present and apply non-invasive optoelectronic nanoscopy to measure the optical and electronic properties of graphene devices locally. This is achieved by combining scanning near-field infrared nanoscopy with electrical read-out, allowing infrared photocurrent mapping at length scales of tens of nanometres. Using this technique, we study the impact of edges and grain boundaries on the spatial carrier density profiles and local thermoelectric properties. Moreover, we show that the technique can readily be applied to encapsulated graphene devices. We observe charge build-up near the edges and demonstrate a solution to this issue.

Photoexcitation of graphene leads to an interesting sequence of phenomena, some of which can be exploited in optoelectronic devices based on graphene. In particular, the efficient and ultrafast generation of an electron distribution with an elevated electron temperature and the concomitant generation of a photo-thermoelectric voltage at symmetry-breaking interfaces is of interest for photosensing and light harvesting. Here, we experimentally study the generated photocurrent at the graphene-metal interface, focusing on the time-resolved photocurrent, the effects of photon energy, Fermi energy and light polarization. We show that a single framework based on photo-thermoelectric photocurrent generation explains all experimental results.