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Traditional ecological knowledge enables pastoralists to cope with social-ecological changes, thereby increasing the sustainability of their practices and fostering social-ecological resilience. Yet, there is a significant knowledge gap concerning the extent to which pastoral traditional ecological knowledge has changed over time at the global level. We aim to fill this gap through a systematic literature review of 288 scientific studies on pastoral traditional ecological knowledge. We reviewed 152 papers in detail (selected randomly from the 288) for their content, and focused specifically on 61 papers that explicitly mentioned one of the four types of knowledge transition (i.e., retention, erosion, adaptation, or hybridization). Studies on pastoral traditional knowledge represent less than 3% of all the scholarly literature on traditional ecological knowledge. Geographical distribution of the 288 case studies was largely biased. Knowledge domains of pastoral knowledge such as herd and livestock management, forage and medicinal plants, and landscape and wildlife were relatively equally covered; however, climate-related knowledge was less often studied. Of the 63 papers that explicitly mentioned transition of pastoral traditional ecological knowledge, 52 reported erosion, and only 11 studies documented explicitly knowledge retention, adaptation, or hybridization of traditional knowledge. Thus, adaptation and hybridization was understudied, although some case studies showed that adaptation and hybridization of knowledge can efficiently help pastoralists navigate among social-ecological changes. Based on the review, we found 13 drivers which were mentioned as the main reasons for knowledge transition among which social-cultural changes, formal schooling, abandonment of pastoral activities, and transition to a market economy were most often reported. We conclude that future research should focus more on the diverse dynamics of pastoral traditional knowledge, be more careful in distinguishing the four knowledge transition types, and analyze how changes in knowledge impact change in pastoral practices and lifestyles. Understanding these phenomena could help pastoralists' adaptations and support their stewardship of their rangeland ecosystems and biocultural diversity.

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Flood disaster is considered a significant natural hazard due to their devastating effects. The 2019 flood in Northern Iran drastically affected the lives of Indigenous Turkmen pastoralists. This work assesses the vulnerability of the pastoral families living in flood regions. We used the Geographical Information System, Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis, and semi-structured interviews to analyze the flood vulnerable areas. Initially, we interviewed 20 individuals and then formulated a questionnaire completed by 69 pastoralists in rangelands affected by floods in Golestan province. Result showed that 91% of the participants thought road networks and 76% thought livestock were the most affected components of the rangeland ecosystems in the 2019 flood. Moreover, we found supplementary feeding, watering costs, and forage quantity to be the most affected items in the economy of pastoral families. The main rangeland degrading factors were overgrazing, climate change, drought, and water shortages. The main reasons for overgrazing were the high prices of supplementary feeding, low forage productivity of the rangelands, and financial difficulties of pastoralists. We indicated that pastoral communities in the semi-arid rangeland of Northern Golestan were highly vulnerable to flood. Hence, proper management of rangelands and building pastoral family resilience requires the attention of nature conservationists and management organizations at the national level.

The selection of species for restoration projects requires decision-making to be based on scientific evidence as well as input and approval from local communities. To better guide future restoration initiatives, this study assessed the socio-ecological effects of two Prosopis congeners including the native Prosopis cineraria and the non-native P. juliflora (mesquite) in two different sites in Southern Iran. Soil parameters including pH, electrical conductivity, organic carbon, and total nitrogen as well as vegetation indices including native vegetation cover, diversity, and density were measured under both of the congener tree species. Furthermore, pastoralists' perceptions toward the colonizing ability of both Prosopis congeners, their impacts on ecosystem services, and people's livelihoods and human well-being were assessed through interviews and semi-structured questionnaires. The ecological results showed that areas with native P. cineraria had higher native vegetation cover, density, and diversity as compared to sites with the non-native P. juliflora. Soils under P. cineraria and P. juliflora generally showed similar properties, with some small differences between sites (especially for pH and nitrogen). The social results showed that pastoralists in both study regions perceived P. cineraria to be better for local ecosystem services and livelihoods and viewed it to have lower colonizing or invasion potential. It can be concluded that native P. cineraria is a better candidate for restoration because it provides more ecological and social benefits and poses fewer long-term threats. Caution should be taken when promoting non-native species such as P. juliflora for restoration.

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Tussilago farfara L. is a perennial forb belonging to the Asteraceae family. The leaves and flowers of this plant have medicinal properties, and its essential oil has been used for the treatment of dry coughs and inflammation of the mouth, throat, and respiratory tract. This study aimed to assess some phytochemical characteristics of Tussilago farfara L. and compare changes in this plant at different altitudes.Material & Methods: To investigate the changes in the amount of the effective substance of the studied plant in the altitude gradient, altitude classes of 1100-2600 meters were considered in Golestan province, Iran, considering the presence and abundance of the species. In each phenological stage (before and after flowering time), plant samples were randomly collected in each altitude class and transferred to the laboratory. Total phenol content and flavonoid content were measured using the Folin-Ciocalteu and aluminum chloride methods, respectively. The antioxidant activity of the methanolic extract was also evaluated using the DPPH (2,2-Diphenyl-1picrylhydrazyl) reagent. Findings: The results showed that the highest amounts of total phenol content, flavonoids, and antioxidant activity were observed at altitudes above 2200 meters, and there was a significant difference in plants (Tussilago farfara L.) grown in different altitudes in terms of phytochemical properties. Based on the comparison of phytochemical properties of this plant in different phenological stages, the highest content of total phenol and flavonoids were observed in the phonological stage of flowering and the highest (42.08%) antioxidant activity of leaves was observed in the vegetative stage. Discussion & Conclusion:The results of this study can help activists in the field of medicinal plants to determine the appropriate height range and phenological stage in harvesting the leaves of this plant to achieve the highest levels of phenol content, flavonoids, and antioxidant activity.