Hypothyroidism is a commonly encountered clinical condition with variable prevalence. It has profound effects on cardiac function that can impact cardiac contractility, vascular resistance, blood pressure, and heart rhythm. With this review, we aim to describe the effects of hypothyroidism and subclinical hypothyroidism on the heart. Additionally, we attempt to briefly describe how hypothyroid treatment affects cardiovascular parameters. Thyroid hormone activation of THR-β induces angiogenesis by initiating the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. 4 Severe hypothyroidism can also cause pericardial effusion. Though the mechanism is unclear, increased capillary permeability and reduced lymphatic drainage from the pericardial space have been suggested. 4 Hypothyroidism can also be associated with a decrease in insulin sensitivity due to downregulation of glucose transporters and direct effects on insulin secretion and clearance. 6Heart Failure and HypothyroidismAs described earlier, hypothyroidism can affect cardiac contractility, which is often diastolic in nature, and impair cardiac muscle relaxation. Associated diastolic hypertension and sometimes-coexistent coronary artery disease further affect myocardial diastolic function.7 Cardiac echocardiography has demonstrated impaired relaxation in patients with overt and subclinical hypothyroidism. In addition, early impaired relaxation has been demonstrated by prolongation of the isovolumetric relaxation time and reduction in the E/A ratio in subclinical hypothyroidism.8 The E/A ratio is a ratio of early to late ventricular filling velocities, and a reduced E/A ratio signifies diastolic dysfunction from impaired relaxation. Consequently, it results in a state of low cardiac output with decreased heart rate and stroke volume. It is well known that protein-rich pericardial and/or pleural effusion often occurs in hypothyroidism as a result of increased vascular permeability. In advanced heart failure and shortly after myocardial infarction, the conversion of T4 to T3 decreases. Since T3 is the main regulator of gene expression in myocardial muscle, this decrease has been thought to affect myocardial contractility and remodeling.7 Low free T3 levels also have been associated with increased mortality in patients with heart disease. Arrhythmia and HypothyroidismIt is well known that hyperthyroidism is associated with atrial fibrillation (AF). Similarly, hypothyroidism is associated with increased cardiovascular risk factors as well as subclinical and diagnosed cardiovascular disease, both of which are thought to predispose one to AF. However, the relationship between hypothyroidism and AF was evaluated in the Framingham Heart Study and was not found to be statistically significant. 10 The QT interval is often prolonged in hypothyroidism due to prolonged ventricular action potential.11 This is indicative of increased ventricular irritability and in turn can lead to acquired Torsades de pointes. Varying degrees of atrioventricular block and low QRS complexes a...

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