This study investigated the space-time drought incidence in the northeastern highlands of Ethiopia using monthly rainfall data. It also aims to predict drought events for 100 years. The Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) was used to compute the drought severity classes of rainy months and seasons at 1-, 4-and 8-months timesteps. The Mann-Kendall's test and Sen's slope estimator were used to analyze the trends of drought events and to determine the magnitude of change. Inverse Distance Weighted spatial analysis tool was used to illustrate the spatial patterns of the drought risk events. The study detected extreme severe droughts in the belg rainy months in March 2008 and April 1984. However, during the belg season, the year 1999 was the driest for the recorded periods. On the other hand, the extremely severe droughts were observed during the kiremt rainy months were the driest years recorded in the kiremt season. The study noted that the drought risk events of months in the belg season were threefold greater than that of the months in kiremt season under moderate drought intensity class. Equally, the drought risk events of months in kiremt season were threefold greater than that of the belg season under extreme drought intensity class. Complex spatial variations of drought risk events were also observed in 1-, 4-and 8-months timesteps. During the belg seasons, the southern half was subjected to more frequent drought risk events while the northern half experienced more frequent drought risk events during kiremt season. Almost the eastern half of the livelihood zones experienced higher drought frequency events than the other parts in the 8-month timestep. The observed space-time drought risk event analysis has shown a potential threat to the rainfed agricultural practices that have a great influence on the livelihoods of smallholder farmers. Hence, documentation and assessment of drought risk events based on the livelihood zones are essential for drought risk management, early warning responses, localscale planning and food security management. Finally, the study recommended further research on additional indices of climatic variables such as evapotranspiration and soil water content.

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Background: Enset Xanthomonas wilt (EXW) was first reported in 1939 and continues to threaten the sustainability of farming systems in south and southwestern parts of Ethiopia. The present study was conducted in the central zones of southern Ethiopia to assess farmers' knowledge and perception about EXW, its etiology and mode of transmission, and its implications for the management of EXW. Methods:A survey was conducted in 240 households across Hadiya, Kembata-Tembaro and Wolaita zones of southern Ethiopia using focus group discussions and a structured questionnaire to assess farmers' perceptions of causes and modes of EXW transmission, and their knowledge on symptom identification. In addition, EXW prevalence, incidence and severity were determined for each zone. Data were analyzed through descriptive statistics. Results:The results showed that a significant number of farmers are aware of EXW, its symptoms, etiology and transmission and spread, but they are not able to readily relate modes of spread to control methods. Since 2002, EXW became prominent in Hadiya, with the highest EXW incidence and severity, followed by Wolaita, and Kembata-Tembaro. Farmers identified EXW as the major cause for declining production and productivity of enset in the region. Conclusion:EXW has spread widely and rapidly in southern Ethiopia, with significant socioeconomic impacts in smallholders' livelihoods. There is a need for developing knowledge-based strategies and awareness-raising campaign for EXW management.

Background The adverse effects of climate variability and extremes exert increasing pressure on rural farm households whose livelihoods are dependent on nature. However, integrated and area-specific vulnerability assessments in Ethiopia in general and the study area, in particular, are scarce and insufficient for policy implications. Therefore, this study aims to quantify, map, classify, and prioritize the level of vulnerability in terms of the components of exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity in the Northeastern Highlands of Ethiopia. The study area is divided into six livelihood zones, namely, Abay-Beshilo Basin (ABB), South Wollo and Oromia eastern lowland sorghum and cattle (SWS), Chefa Valley (CHV), Meher-Belg, Belg, and Meher. A total of 361 sample households were selected using proportional probability sampling techniques. Survey questionnaire, key informant interview, and focus group discussions were used to collect the necessary data. Rainfall and temperature data were also used. Following the IPCC’s climate change vulnerability assessment approach, the climate vulnerability index (CVI) framework of Sullivan and Meigh’s model was used to assess the relative vulnerability of livelihoods of rural households. Twenty-four vulnerability indicators were identified for exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity components. In this regard, Iyengar and Sudarshan’s unequal weighting system was applied to assign a weight to indicators. Results The results revealed that Belg and Meher were found to be the highest exposure livelihood zones to vulnerability with an aggregated value of 0.71. Equally, SWS, ABB, Belg, and CHV livelihood zones showed moderate level of sensitivity to vulnerability with an aggregated value between 0.45 and 0.60. The study noted that livelihood zone of Belg (0.75) was found to be at high level of livelihood vulnerability. ABB (0.57) and CHV (0.45) were at a moderate level of livelihood vulnerability while Meher-Belg (0.22) was the least vulnerable livelihood zone due to a high level of adaptive capacity such as infrastructure, asset accumulation, and social networks. Conclusion It was identified that disparities of livelihood vulnerability levels of rural households were detected across the study livelihood zones due to differences in the interaction of exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity components. The highest levels of exposure and sensitivity combined with low level of adaptive capacity have increased households’ livelihood vulnerability. More importantly, the biophysical and socioeconomic sensitivity to livelihood vulnerability were exacerbated by slope/topography, soil erodibility, and population pressure. Therefore, designing livelihood zone-based identifiable adaptation strategies are essential to reduce the exposure and sensitivity of crop-livestock mixed agricultural systems to climate calamity.

BackgroundAppraising of rural households’ perception and observed rainfall and temperature variability is a vital stage in devising operational adaptation strategies. Therefore, this study aims to examine the rural households’ perception and adaptation strategies to climate variability induced vulnerability in Northeastern Highlands of Ethiopia across the livelihood zones. A total of 361 sample households were selected using proportional probability sampling techniques. Data sources such as survey questionnaire, interview and focus group discussion were used to collect the necessary information. Historical rainfall and temperature data from CenTrends Great Horn of Africa v1 and CRU_TS 4.0 were also used. Precipitation Concentration Index (PCI) and Standardized Anomaly Index (SAI) model were employed to analyze the data. Descriptive statistical tools for frequency and percentage were also used. ResultsThe result showed that rainfall and temperature variability induced vulnerability were well perceived by rural households’ though varied across the livelihood zones. This was also similarly shown by Precipitation concentration index and standardized anomaly index at the annual, Kiremt and Belg seasons in the observed rainfall and temperature information. In response to rainfall and temperature variability induced vulnerability, rural households have engaged in a range of adaptation measures. These include the different biophysical soil and water conservation measures; crop and livestock diversification by planting and rearing variety of crop and livestock; changing crop planting and harvesting dates according to the changing pattern of rainfall. However, the executed adaptation strategies are insufficient as compared to the imposed vulnerability challenges by climate variability. There is also a great gap between rural households’ climate variability perception and level of actual adaptation response measures. Because the result revealed that the presence of various impediments deterred the available and implemented adaptation response measures to climate variability induced vulnerability. ConclusionEven if rural households perceiving and practicing adaptation measures to climate variability induced vulnerability, still different impediments weaken the actual adaptation responses. Therefore, these demands the government, communities, and other stakeholders at different level in designing integrated and distinct livelihood zone-based adaptation strategies to reduce households’ crop-livestock mixed agriculture from climate calamity vulnerability.