Objectives This review discusses the limitations and applications of the everted gut sac model in studying drug absorption, metabolism, and interaction. Key findings The mechanism of drug absorption, interaction and the effect of factors such as age, sex, species, chronic therapy, and disease state on drug absorption have been summarized. The experimental conditions and their effects on the outcomes of trials have been discussed also. Summary The everted sac model is an efficient tool for studying in-vitro drug absorption mechanisms, intestinal metabolism of drugs, role of transporter in drug absorption, and for investigating the role of intestinal enzymes during drug transport through the intestine.

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BackgroundFulminant hepatic failure (FHF) is clinical syndrome with very poor prognosis and high mortality there is urgent need for the development of safe and non-toxic hepatoprotective agents for the adequate management of hepatitis. Hepatoprotective effect of the Lepidium sativum ethanolic extract (LSEE) was assessed by D-galactosamine-induced/lipopolysaccharide (400 mg/kg and 30 μg/kg) liver damage model in rats.MethodsHepatoprotective activity of LSEE (150 and 300 mg/kg) and silymarin on D-GalN/LPS induced FHF in rat was assessed using several liver function enzyme parameters. Antioxidant properties as antioxidant stress enzymes were assessed in hepatic Liver as well as mRNA expression of cytokines genes such as TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-10 and stress related genes iNOS and HO-1 were determined by RT-PCR. Protein expression of apoptotic genes were evaluated through western blot. MPO and NF-κB DNA-binding activity was analyzed by ELISA. The magnitude of hepatic impairment was investigated through histopathological evaluation.ResultsMarked amelioration of hepatic injuries by attenuation of serum and lipid peroxidation has been observed as comparable with silymarin (25 mg/kg p.o). D-GalN/LPS induced significant decrease in oxidative stress markers protein level, and albumin. LSEE significantly down-regulated the D-GalN/LPS induced pro-inflammatory cytokines TNFα and IL-6 mRNA expression in dose dependent fashion about 0.47 and 0.26 fold and up-regulates the IL-10 by 1.9 and 2.8 fold, respectively. While encourages hepatoprotective activity by down-regulating mRNA expression of iNOS and HO-1. MPO activity and NF-κB DNA-binding effect significantly increased and was mitigated by LSEE in a dose-dependent style as paralleled with silymarin.ConclusionOur data suggests that pretreatment of LSEE down regulates the caspase 3 and up-regulates the BCl2 protein expression. The above findings revealed that Lepidium sativum has significant hepatoprotective activity.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12906-016-1483-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Binary and ternary SDs are found to be more stable and provide better enhancement of solubility or dissolution of poorly water-soluble drugs. The use of surfactants in the carrier system of SD is a recent trend. Surfactants and polymers provide stability against re-crystallization of SDs, surfactants also improve solubility and dissolution of drug.

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The present results showed the ability of SA to restore the antioxidant system and to inhibit oxidative stress, proinflammatory cytokines, extracellular matrix, and TGF-β. This is first report demonstrating that SA amoleriates BLM induced lung injuries through inhibition of apoptosis and induction of Nrf2 and HO-1 mediated antioxidant enzyme via NF-κB inhibition. The histopathological finding reveals that SA treatment (10 and 20 mg/kg) significantly ameliorates BLM induced lung injuries.