Nero’s Temple at El-Ashmonein archaeological site, in Minia (middle of Egypt), is considered one of the most important of all temples of Nero. This temple dates back to 1520 BC–1075 BC in the New Kingdom and was reused in the era of Nero (the Fifth Emperor of Rome). The temple construction materials are severely decayed from surrounding environmental impacts, especially contaminated water sources. The main objective of this paper is to identify the construction materials of Nero’s Temple and their decay by-products. To achieve them, X-ray diffraction, micro X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, and portable Raman spectroscopy were utilized to identify the compositions and alteration by-products/degradation compounds (mainly saline efflorescence and crusts) from the construction materials, such as limestone walls, and structural mortars of the temple. In addition, a polarizing microscope was used to identify the minerals inside the construction materials and reveal the alteration of the minerals because of decay. Digital microscopy and scanning electron microscopy with EDS were used to detect decayed materials' morphological features. Finally, results showed that the main decay factor is salt attack (chlorides, sulfates, phosphates, nitrates, carbonates, and bicarbonates) for all architectural and structural elements of the temple, which have been carried to the construction materials from various sources of contaminated water (canal, sewage, and agricultural water). Graphical Abstract
El-Ashmonein is a significant archaeological site with different buildings from various eras. Between the villages of El-Idara and El-Ashmonein are there mains of Hermopolis, one of the ancient Egyptian metropolis capitals of the fifteenth century of Upper Egypt, called the hare. The buildings in this archaeological site are exposed to many causes of destruction and damage. The remaining structures and granite free standing columns in this area are suffered from plenty of geo-environmental and geotechnical problems. The main objectives of this study are 1) to assess the current state of preservation of this important archaeological site, especially the basilica church with its free standing huge columns, 2) to analyze the different actions which cause the destruction of the archaeological site, in particular the old flash floods and earthquakes, and 3) to identify the geochemical and engineering properties of the construction materials of the granitic columns and other limestone structures of the basilica church by using different kind of sophisticated analytical and diagnostic tools and methods. The multi-criteria analysis allowed the integration of several elements for mapping the vulnerable zones. Results revealed that about 80% of the study area was exposed to high and medium old floods vulnerability because of the vicinity to the Nile River. The structural and non-structural measures recommended in this research will help the decision makers and planners to effectively develop strategies for future site management, intervention retrofitting and rehabilitation of this unique archaeological site.
Abusir is the name of an elaborate burial area in Egypt, dotted with 19 pyramids and other temples, stretching on the western side of the Nile from the south of the Giza Plateau to the northern rim of Saqqara. It seems to have been created as the resting site for the Pharaohs dated from 2494 to 2345 BC. The name Abusir, originally spoken as Busiri, means “Temple of Osiris”. Over time, the name has become so popular because more than 60 villages now carry this name, but only one is the archaeological site. This paper focused on one of its most important pyramids from the Abusir archaeological area, Sahure's pyramid, since it is one of Egypt’s little-known but heavily damaged treasures. Field and laboratory studies have been carried out to investigate and understand the durability problems and construction materials of this pyramid, leading to results that confirmed the impact of the geoenvironmental conditions on the pyramid's architectural, structural, and engineering stability. Moreover, the results showed that mineralogical content in the construction materials was an intrinsic problem due to the presence of swellable (expansive) clays, which are considered responsible for pyramid decay and damage. In addition to external factors such as the effect of temperature variations, rain, pollutants, wind, and earthquakes and their interactions with intrinsic building material defects. Finally, this paper revealed a new discovery for basaltic mortar as the first trial for green concrete manufacturing in the Egyptian Old Kingdom, Fifth Dynasty.
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