Oxytocin (Oxt) is a nonapeptide hormone best known for its role in lactation and parturition. Since 1906 when its uterine-contracting properties were described until 50 years later when its sequence was elucidated, research focused on its peripheral roles in reproduction. Only over the past several decades have researchers focused on what functions Oxt might have in the brain, the subject of this review. Immunohistochemical studies revealed that magnocellular neurons of the hypothalamic paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei are the neurons of origin for the Oxt released from the posterior pituitary. Smaller cells in various parts of the brain, as well as release from magnocellular dendrites, provide the Oxt responsible for modulating various behaviors at its only identified receptor. Although Oxt is implicated in a variety of “non-social” behaviors, such as learning, anxiety, feeding and pain perception, it is Oxt’s roles in various social behaviors that have come to the fore recently. Oxt is important for social memory and attachment, sexual and maternal behavior, and aggression. Recent work implicates Oxt in human bonding and trust as well. Human disorders characterized by aberrant social interactions, such as autism and schizophrenia, may also involve Oxt expression. Many, if not most, of Oxt’s functions, from social interactions (affiliation, aggression) and sexual behavior to eventual parturition, lactation and maternal behavior, may be viewed as specifically facilitating

Vasopressin (Avp) is mainly synthesized in the magnocellular cells of the hypothalamic supraoptic (SON) and paraventricular nuclei (PVN) whose axons project to the posterior pituitary. Avp is then released into the blood stream upon appropriate stimulation (e.g., hemorrhage or dehydration) to act at the kidneys and blood vessels. The brain also contains several populations of smaller, parvocellular neurons whose projections remain within the brain. These populations are located within the PVN, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST), medial amygdala (MeA) and suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN).Since the 1950's, research examining the roles of Avp in the brain and periphery has intensified. The development of specific agonists and antagonists for Avp receptors has allowed for a better elucidation of its contributions to physiology and behavior. Anatomical, pharmacological and transgenic, including "knockout," animal studies, have implicated Avp in the regulation of various social behaviors across species.Avp plays a prominent role in the regulation of aggression, generally of facilitating or promoting it. Affiliation and certain aspects of pair-bonding are also influenced by Avp. Memory, one of the first brain functions of Avp that was investigated, has been implicated especially strongly in social recognition. The roles of Avp in stress, anxiety, and depressive states are areas of active exploration. In this review, we concentrate on the scientific progress that has been made on understanding the role of Avp in regulating of these and other behaviors across species, as well as discuss the implications for human behavior.

Oxytocin plays important roles in reproductive physiology and various behaviors, including maternal behavior and social memory. Its receptor (Oxtr) is present in peripheral tissues and brain, so a conditional knockout (KO, -/-) would be useful to allow elimination of the receptor in specific sites at defined times. We created a line of mice in which loxP sites flank Oxtr coding sequence (floxed) enable Cre recombinase-mediated inactivation of the receptor. We expressed Cre recombinase in these mice either in all tissues (Oxtr(-/-)) or the forebrain (Oxtr(FB/FB)) using the Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase IIalpha promoter. The latter KO has reduced Oxtr binding beginning 21-28 d postnatally, leading to prominent reductions in the lateral septum, hippocampus, and ventral pallidum. The medial amygdala is spared, and there is significant retention of binding within the olfactory bulb and nucleus and neocortex. We did not observe any deficits in the general health, sensorimotor functions, anxiety-like behaviors, or sucrose intake in either Oxtr(-/-) or Oxtr(FB/FB) mice. Females of both KO types deliver pups, but only the Oxtr(FB/FB) mice are able to eject milk. Oxtr(-/-) males show impaired social memory for familiar females, whereas the Oxtr(FB/FB) males appear to recognize their species but not individuals. Our results confirm the importance of oxytocin in social recognition and demonstrate that spatial and temporal inactivation of the Oxtr will enable finer understanding of the physiological, behavioral, and developmental roles of the receptor.

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We studied three lines of oxytocin (Oxt) and oxytocin receptor (Oxtr) knockout (KO) male mice (Oxt−/−, total Oxtr−/−, and partial-forebrain Oxtr (OxtrFB/FB)) with established deficits in social recognition to further refine our understanding of their deficits with regard to stimulus female's strain. We used a modified social discrimination paradigm in which subjects are singly housed only for the duration of the test. Additionally, stimulus females are singly-housed throughout testing and are presented within corrals for rapid comparison of investigation by subject males. Wildtype (WT) males from all three lines discriminated between familiar and novel females of three different strains (C57BL/6, Balb/c, Swiss-Webster). No KO males discriminated between familiar and novel Balb/c or C57BL/6 females. Male Oxt−/− and Oxtr−/− mice, but not OxtrFB/FB mice, discriminated between familiar and novel Swiss-Webster females. As this might indicate a global deficit in individual recognition for OxtrFB/FB males, we examined their ability to discriminate between females from different strains and compared performance with Oxtr−/− males. WT and KO males from both lines were able to distinguish between familiar and novel females from different strains, indicating the social recognition deficit is not universal. Instead, we hypothesize that the Oxtr is involved in “fine” intra-strain recognition, but is less important in “broad” inter-strain recognition. We also present the novel finding of decreased investigation across tests, which is likely an artifact of repeated testing and not due to stimulus female's strain or age of subject males.

Recognition memory and anxiety were examined in nulliparous (NP: 0 litters) and multiparous (MP: 5-6 litters) middle-aged female rats (12 months old) to assess possible enduring effects of multiparity at least 3 months after last litter was weaned. MP females performed significantly better than NP females on the non-spatial memory task, object recognition, and the spatial memory task, object placement. Anxiety as measured on the elevated plus maze did not differ between groups. Monoaminergic activity and levels were measured in prefrontal cortex, CA1 hippocampus, CA3 hippocampus, and olfactory bulb (OB). NP and MP females differed in monoamine concentrations in the OB only, with MP females having significantly greater concentrations of dopamine and metabolite DOPAC, norepinephrine and metabolite MHPG, and the serotonin metabolite 5-HIAA, as compared to NP females. These results indicate a long-term change in OB neurochemistry as a result of multiparity. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) was also measured in hippocampus (CA1, CA3, dentate gyrus), and septum. MP females had higher BDNF levels in both CA1 and septum; as these regions are implicated in memory performance, elevated BDNF may underlie the observed memory task differences. Thus, MP females (experiencing multiple bouts of pregnancy, birth, and pup rearing during the first year of life) displayed enhanced memory task performance, but equal anxiety responses, as compared to NP females. These results are consistent with previous studies showing long-term changes in behavioral function in MP, as compared to NP, rats, and suggest that alterations in monoamines and a neurotrophin, BDNF, may contribute to the observed behavioral changes.