Insect colours assist in body protection, signalling, and physiological adaptations. Colours also convey multiple channels of information. These channels are valuable for species identification, distinguishing individual quality, and revealing ecological or evolutionary aspects of animals’ life. During recent years, the emerging interest in colour research has been raised in social hymenopterans such as ants, wasps, and bees. These insects provide important ecosystem services and many of those are model research organisms. Here we review benefits that various colour types give to social insects, summarize practical applications, and highlight further directions. Ants might use colours principally for camouflage, however the evolutionary function of colour in ants needs more attention; in case of melanin colouration there is evidence for its interrelation with thermoregulation and pathogen resistance. Colours in wasps and bees have confirmed linkages to thermoregulation, which is increasingly important in face of global climate change. Besides wasps use colours for various types of signalling. Colour variations of well chemically defended social insects are the mimetic model for unprotected organisms. Despite recent progress in molecular identification of species, colour variations are still widely in use for species identification. Therefore, further studies on variability is encouraged. Being closely interconnected with physiological and biochemical processes, insect colouration is a great source for finding new ecological indicators and biomarkers. Due to novel digital imaging techniques, software, and artificial intelligence there are emerging possibilities for new advances in this topic. Further colour research in social insects should consider specific features of sociality.

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Ants are considered to be suitable indicators of ecological change and are widely used in land management and environmental monitoring. However, responses of ant communities to industrial pollution are less known so far. We studied pollution-related variations of ant diversity and abundance near the Middle Ural Copper Smelter (Russia) in 2009 and 2013, with pitfall traps set up at 10 sites in Picea obovata and Abies sibirica forest. This study provided evidences for humped pollution-induced dynamics of ant diversity and abundance. Species richness and diversity peaked in the habitat intermediate between slightly damaged and fully destroyed forest ecosystems. The total abundance of ants peaked in the middle of the pollution gradient and was determined mainly by the dominant species Formica aquilonia. The abundance of other species increased towards the smelter, but was less important for total abundance than that of red wood ants. Community dominants changed with increase of exposure; F. aquilonia, a typical species of mature forests, was replaced by species of open habitats, Lasius niger and Myrmica ruginodis. Habitat variables and competition between species seem to affect local ant communities more strongly than pollution exposure. Stand basal area and cover of the field layer were the main determinants of ant diversity and abundance of individual species.

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Introduction Ants (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) are poikilotherms arthropods depending on the environmental temperature regime for their survivals (Wilson, 1971). The brood (eggs, larvae, and pupae) of ant colonies arekept and tended by nursing ants inside the nests where certain temperature and humidity conditions are provided and maintained for growth and development (Jones and Oldroyd, 2007). Most of the nests of many ant species are found either underground or in rotten wood (i.e. members of the genera Myrmica Latreille, Tetramorium Mayr, Temnothorax Mayr, Camponotus Mayr, some Formica Linnaeus species), but somenests are found in mounds made of soil, although less often [Lasiusniger (Linnaeus, 1758), Lasius flavus Fabricius, 1781] (Dlussky, 1980). Whatever the type of nest built, all ants need to provide optimal intranest microconditions for their survival; this is best achieved by red wood ants (Formica rufa group), the dominant inhabitants of temperate forests, by exhibiting a distinctive feature of autonomous heat regulation in their nests (

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