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Molecular phylogenies using 1-4 gene regions and information on ecology, morphology and pigment chemistry were used in a partial revision of the agaric family Hygrophoraceae. The phylogenetically supported genera we recognize here in the Hygrophoraceae based on these and previous analyses are: Acantholichen, Ampulloclitocybe, Arrhenia, Cantharellula, Cantharocybe, Chromosera, Chrysomphalina, Cora, Corella, Cuphophyllus, Cyphellostereum, Dictyonema, Eonema, Gliophorus, Haasiella, Humidicutis, Hygroaster, Hygrocybe, Hygrophorus, Lichenomphalia, Neohygrocybe, Porpolomopsis and Pseudoarmillariella. A new genus that is sister to Chromosera is described as Gloioxanthomyces. Revisions were made at the ranks of subfamily, tribe, genus, subgenus, section and subsection. We present three new subfamilies, eight tribes (five new), eight subgenera (one new, one new combination and one stat. nov.), 26 sections (five new and three new combinations and two stat. nov.) and 14 subsections (two new, two stat. nov.). Species of Chromosera, Gliophorus, Humidicutis, and Neohygrocybe are often treated within the genus Hygrocybe; we therefore provide valid names in both classification systems. We used a minimalist approach in transferring genera and creating new names and combinations. Consequently, we retain in the Hygrophoraceae the basal cuphophylloid grade comprising the genera Cuphophyllus, Ampulloclitocybe and Cantharocybe, despite weak phylogenetic support. We include Aeruginospora and Semiomphalina in Hygrophoraceae based on morphology though molecular data are lacking. The lower hygrophoroid clade is basal to Hygrophoraceae s.s., comprising the genera Aphroditeola, Macrotyphula, Phyllotopsis, Pleurocybella, Sarcomyxa, Tricholomopsis and Typhula.

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Since the nineteenth century, Myriostoma has been regarded as a monotypic genus with a widespread distribution in north temperate and subtropical regions. However, on the basis of morphological characters and phylogenetic evidence of DNA sequences of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions and the large subunit nuclear ribosomal RNA gene (LSU), four species are now delimited: M. areolatum comb. & stat. nov., M. calongei sp. nov., M. capillisporum comb. & stat. nov., and M. coliforme. Myriostoma coliforme is typified by selecting a lectotype (iconotype) and a modern sequenced collection as an epitype. The four species can be discriminated by a combination of morphological characters, such as stomatal form, endoperidial surface texture, and basidiospore size and ornamentation.

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This paper focuses on neotropical fungal pathogens and diseases of rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) and cacao (Theobroma cacao). Some topics discussed include the biology and distribution of the pathogens, and some strategies for controlling the diseases.

Nomenclatural type definitions are one of the most important concepts in biological nomenclature. Being physical objects that can be re-studied by other researchers, types permanently link taxonomy (an artificial agreement to classify biological diversity) with nomenclature (an artificial agreement to name biological diversity). Two proposals to amend the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN), allowing DNA sequences alone (of any region and extent) to serve as types of taxon names for voucherless fungi (mainly putative taxa from environmental DNA sequences), have been submitted to be voted on at the 11th International Mycological Congress (Puerto Rico, July 2018). We consider various genetic processes affecting the distribution of alleles among taxa and find that alleles may not consistently and uniquely represent the species within which they are contained. Should the proposals be accepted, the meaning of nomenclatural types would change in a fundamental way from physical objects as sources of data to the data themselves. Such changes are conducive to irreproducible science, the potential typification on artefactual data, and massive creation of names with low information content, ultimately causing nomenclatural instability and unnecessary work for future researchers that would stall future explorations of fungal diversity. We conclude that the acceptance of DNA sequences alone as types of names of taxa, under the terms used in the current proposals, is unnecessary and would not solve the problem of naming putative taxa known only from DNA sequences in a scientifically defensible way. As an alternative, we highlight the use of formulas for naming putative taxa (candidate taxa) that do not require any modification of the ICN.

A series of azaphilones produced by Penicillium sclerotiorum (Xenova culture collection number XI 1 853) active in assays for the detection of antagonists of the endothelin-A (ETA) and endothelin-B (ETB) receptors has been identified. The series includes two novel sclerotiorin analogues, ($S,%a-R)-7-deacetyl-l ,O 8,8,8a-tetrahydro-7-à¬>/?/-sclerotiorin, 1, and its 5-dechloro analogue, 2. It also includes 5-chloroisorotiorin, 6, previously unreported as a natural product, in addition to the major product of these fermentations, (+)-sclerotiorin, 5. Data for the inhibition of endothelin-1 (ET-1) and endothelin-3 (ET-3) binding in the ETAand ETBreceptor assays respectively are reported for this series. Compounds1 and 2 were more selective for the rabbit ETAreceptor than for the rat ETB receptor. The IC50 values for 1 and 2 were 9 and 28/*m respectively in an assay based on binding of ET-1 to rabbit ETAreceptors. In an assay based on the binding of ET-3 to the rat ETBreceptor The endothelins (which exist as three isoforms: ET-1, ET-2 and ET-3) are a family of potent vasoconstricting peptides with a variety of biological activities including bronchoconstriction, positive inotropic and chronotropic effects, mitogenesis and potent renal effects. Endothelins are implicated in several human disease states including hypertension, congestive heart failure, renal failure, pulmonary hypertension, ischemia and cerebral vasospasm1 "40. Recent results obtained with mice deficient in endothelin-1 suggest that it is essential for normal mouse development and may also play a physiological role in cardiovascular homeostasis5). non-selective receptor, recognising the ET isopeptides with equal affinity, was originally identified as the non-vascular smooth muscle receptor. This receptor is localised on endothelial cells in certain tissues and has been associated with vasodilatory activity, perhaps through the release of the endothelin-derived relaxing factor (EDRF). It has been reported, however, that the ETBreceptor is also localised on vascular smooth muscle and mediates a vasoconstrictor response in certain tissues/species. The use of endothelin receptor antagonists is furthering the understanding of the pathophysiological role of the endothelins17~22).The endothelin antagonists discovered to date from microbial sources are predominantly actinomycete metabolites. These include the ETA receptor specific cyclic pentapeptide BE-18257B from Streptomyces misakiensis23\ the benzarlthraquinones WS009Aand WS009B from a Streptomyces sp.24), and the depsipeptide cochinmicins from a Microbispora sp.2 5) There have been fewer reports of endothelin receptor