A survey of examination frequencies, dose reference values, effective doses and doses to organs involving 14 scanners from Greece and 32 scanners from Italy was carried out for the years 1999 and 2000. Examination frequencies per scanner and per year were found to be 3590 for Greece and 4520 for Italy. For the types of examinations considered, CDTI(W) and DLP measurements were taken. Also scan lengths used for the same types of examinations were monitored. For the same types of examinations effective doses were calculated by two methods, and it was found that their mean values ranged from 13.1 mSv for thoracic spine to 1.6 mSv for the brain examinations. From the data of the 14 Greek laboratories, doses to organs were calculated and it was found that the thyroid receives 50.2 +/- 19.8 mGy during a cervical spine examination while the gonads receive 17.8 +/- 6.9 mGy during a routine pelvis examination.
The radiographic technique factors and the quality of each radiographic image for three common examinations (chest PA, pelvis AP and lumbar spine LAT) were compared with the European criteria and entrance surface dose (ESD) was measured for each radiograph in two Greek hospitals. The measurements were carried out using calibrated LiF thermoluminescence dosemeters. The patients were selected so that their weight was close to 70 +/- 10 kg and their height to 170 +/- 10 cm. Effective dose values were calculated using a PC-based Monte Carlo program. All four X ray rooms in the survey achieved mean doses well below the European reference doses. However the mean doses in the X ray rooms differed by a factor of about 3.
Personnel of haemodynamic and interventional radiology units receive continuously increasing radiation doses due to extended fluoroscopy. Moreover, there is not a parallel increase in the number of cardiology specialists involved. Doses received by 15 cardiologists and 5 nurses, in 5 Athenian hospitals were measured using thermoluminescence dosemeters (TLD) and film badges. The workload and examination protocol of each cardiologist, the technical characteristics of the X ray unit, as well as availability and use of protective equipment were recorded. Results show that doses measured by TLD and film badges differ due mainly to the irregular wear of the latter. Although X ray units performed comparably with each other, dose per procedure received by each cardiologist varied widely, due to differences in examination protocol and beam collimation used. In all cases, nurses' dose was approximately one fourth of cardiologists' dose. In half of the cases assessed, the protective equipment available was not in full use. Estimation of dose per procedure, taking into account personnel's workload assesses annual personnel doses. Evaluation of risk level and check of compliance with regulatory dose limits should be part of continuing radiation protection education.
Diagnostic radiology dosimeters should comply with International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 61674 standard in order to perform measurements with sufficient accuracy and reliability. The calibration of a dosimeter is performed under, and pertains to, reference conditions. However, in most cases, dosimeters are used for clinical measurements under non-reference conditions. The performance, in terms of accuracy of dose measurements, of six commercial diagnostic radiology dosimeters was tested at reference calibration and at clinical non-reference conditions. The results showed that all dosimeters being tested exhibited limits of variation within the +/-5% IEC limits. Depending on the detector's physical and operational properties, the dosimeters' energy dependence of response values varied from -4.7% to +4.2%. To address this variation of response, calibration at three radiation qualities (RQR 3, RQR 5, and RQR 9), at least, is recommended. Different irradiation conditions such as air kerma rate, x-ray tube design, x-ray system, and dosimeter operational modes affect the dosimeters' response by less than 3%. A dosimeter that complies with IEC standards and operates according to its specifications could be used at typical clinical irradiation conditions taking into account only corrections for the energy dependence of response. In this case, the error in dose accuracy is expected to be less than 3%.
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