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The effects of the addition of manganese to a series of TiO 2 -supported cobalt Fischer-Tropsch (FT) catalysts prepared by different methods were studied by a combination of X-ray diffraction (XRD), temperatureprogrammed reduction (TPR), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and in situ X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) spectroscopy at the Co and Mn K-edges. After calcination, the catalysts were generally composed of large Co 3 O 4 clusters in the range 15-35 nm and a MnO 2 -type phase, which existed either dispersed on the TiO 2 surface or covering the Co 3 O 4 particles. Manganese was also found to coexist with the Co 3 O 4 in the form of Co 3-x Mn x O 4 solutions, as revealed by XRD and XAFS. Characterization of the catalysts after H 2 reduction at 350°C by XAFS and TEM showed mostly the formation of very small Co 0 particles (around 2-6 nm), indicating that the cobalt phase tends to redisperse during the reduction process from Co 3 O 4 to Co 0 . The presence of manganese was found to hamper the cobalt reducibility, with this effect being more severe when Co 3-x Mn x O 4 solutions were initially present in the catalyst precursors. Moreover, the presence of manganese generally led to the formation of larger cobalt agglomerates (∼8-15 nm) upon reduction, probably as a consequence of the decrease in cobalt reducibility. The XAFS results revealed that all reduced catalysts contained manganese entirely in a Mn 2+ state, and two well-distinguished compounds could be identified: (1) a highly dispersed Ti 2 MnO 4 -type phase located at the TiO 2 surface and (2) a less dispersed MnO phase being in the proximity of the cobalt particles. Furthermore, the MnO was also found to exist partially mixed with a CoO phase in the form of rock-salt Mn 1-x Co x O-type solid solutions. The existence of the later solutions was further confirmed by scanning transmission electron microscopy with electron energy loss spectroscopy (STEM-EELS) for a Mn-rich sample. Finally, the cobalt active site composition in the catalysts after reduction at 300 and 350°C was linked to the catalytic performances obtained under reaction conditions of 220°C, 1 bar, and H 2 /CO ) 2. The catalysts with larger Co 0 particles (∼ >5 nm) and lower Co reduction extents displayed a higher intrinsic hydrogenation activity and a longer catalyst lifetime. Interestingly, the MnO and Mn 1-x Co x O species effectively promoted these larger Co 0 particles by increasing the C 5+ selectivity and decreasing the CH 4 production, while they did not significantly influence the selectivity of the catalysts containing very small Co 0 particles.

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The palladium M4,5N1N2,3 transition, which is almost absent in palladium metal, becomes quite intense in palladium oxide. The intensity of the transition is linearly proportional to the amount of palladium oxide. This means that AES can be used for quantitative analysis of palladium oxide layers or supported palladium oxide particles.© 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.