This chapter presents the state-of-art of the bilateral teleoperation field. It starts with a discusion of the early class of techniques, which are based on passivity and scattering theory. The main issue in bilateral telerobotic systems is the communication delay between the operator and the remote site (environment), which (if not treated) can lead the system to instability. The chapter continues by presenting the evolution of modern control techniques for stabilization and compensation of the time delay consequences. These techniques include predictive control, adaptive control, sliding-mode robust control, neural learning control, fuzzy control, and neurofuzzy control. Four case studies are reviewed that show what kind of results can be obtained.
This paper proposes a novel technique for applying virtual fixtures in a changing environment. The main targeted application is robotic beating heart surgery, which enables the surgeon to operate directly on a beating heart. Using a motion compensation framework, the motion of the heart surface is stabilized in a virtual space, which is presented to the surgeon to operate in. Consequently, the fixture is implemented in this static space, bypassing problems of dynamic fixtures such as position update, placement and force transients. Randomized experiments were performed using a trained surgeon comparing our approach to simple motion compensation and no compensation at all. The positive effect of the fixture in surgical accuracy for a tracking task is also discussed.
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