On April 13, 2029, asteroid Apophis will pass within six Earth radii (∼31000 km above the surface), in the closest approach of this asteroid in recorded history. This event provides unique scientific opportunities to study the asteroid, its orbit, and surface characteristics at an exceptionally close distance. In this paper, we perform a novel synthetic geometrical, geographical and temporal analysis of the conditions under which the asteroid can be observed from Earth, with a particular emphasis on the conditions and scientific opportunities for bistatic radar observations, the most feasible radar technique applicable during such a close approach. For this purpose, we compile a list of present and future radio observatories or radio facilities around the globe which could participate in bistatic radar observation campaigns during the close approach of Apophis. We estimate signal-to-noise ratios, apparent sky rotation, surface coverage and other observing conditions. We find that a global collaboration of observatories across Australia, Africa, Europe and America will produce high-resolution delay-Doppler radar images with signal-to-noise ratios above 108, while covering ∼85 per cent of the asteroid surface. Moreover, if properly coordinated, the extreme approach of the asteroid might allow for radio amateur detection of the signals sent by large radio observatories and citizen science projects could then be organized. We also find that for visual observations, the Canary Islands will offer the best observing conditions during the closest approach, both for professionals as well as for amateurs. The apparent size of Apophis will be 2-3 times larger than typical seeing, allowing for resolved images of the surface.
This paper presents a novel approach to simulate neurosurgical interventions, which can be used for training in schools of medicine. It is based on the implementation of a benchtop model as an alternative to reported virtual reality-based approaches. The system includes a surgery planning software, 3D models of skull, an electromagnetic fields navigation system and compatible instrumentation. To our knowledge, the system developed here represents a unique approach to neurosurgery training where trainees are able to experiment with a more realistic model of an intended surgical procedure.Keywords --Biomedical equipment, Medical simulation, Motion planning.In clinical training, simulation can reduce the cost derived from medical errors and as a consequence improve patient safety, moreover it provides a set of tools that can be used under the outcome-based education paradigm, where residents can risk-free simulate procedures and demonstrate that they have learned the required skills [1], [2]. Recently, teaching and assessment via simulation technology has gained considerable attention. This is due to issues regarding ethical and cost considerations of conventional training methods that involve animal model workup, which is the traditional apprenticeship approach. Conventional simulators are usually based on virtual reality and haptic systems, physical models that allow direct interaction with structures or a combination of these two approaches [3]. This paper describes the design of a neurosurgery training system suitable for surgical planning and training in neurosurgery. The system includes an electromagnetic neuronavigator, a patient's physical model based on diagnostic images, and a set of surgical instruments modeled in a CADbased software.The conventional electromagnetic tracking system is adapted to work with a platform for medical image processing based on 3DSlicer [4]. The 3D ABS model based on TAC images is printed in a rapid prototyping machine [5]. Finally, the set of instruments commonly used in neurosurgery is built to be compatible with electromagnetic fields generated by the positioning system. The 3Dslicer software is adapted to receive data from the electromagnetic tracking system and combine all that positioning information over TAC images.To test the performance of the system, a decision-making scenario was configured. In this mock situation, trainees were asked to simulate a biopsy of a tumor located in the posterior cumulus. Prior to the simulation, trainees planned the procedure using the 3Dslicer on real CT images. The trainees then proceeded to execute a simulated surgery on the reconstructed 3D model using the neuronavigation system as well as the surgery instrumentation. A log of simulated surgery parameters such as the correctness of surgery steps (planning), entry point assertiveness, and spatial trajectories is then created. Other parameters are also susceptible of being collected depending on the specific requirements of a particular procedure. In any case, an experienced neurosurgeon ...
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