Abstract. Despite the extensive research into hillslope and channel interactions in headwater catchments, surprisingly little attention has been paid to such processes in lowland rivers. In particular, previous studies have not addressed the influence of hillslope contributions and have concentrated solely on in-bank floods rather than more complex out-of-bank cases. Accordingly, we combine field monitoring and numerical modeling to study hillslope, floodplain, and channel interactions for a lowland river. Piezometric, precipitation, and river stage data were used to parameterize and test a new twodimensional finite element model of saturated-unsaturated flow applied to two vertically aligned cross sections through a lowland floodplain. Data for two major out-of-bank flood events were simulated which appeared to show the presence of a significant unsaturated zone extending up to 5 rn below the surface. The model simulated reasonably well the pressure head field that was recorded at a number of piezometers located internal to the computational domain on each transect, and we conclude that floodplain hydrology is predominately a two-dimensional (lateral) process. Three-dimensional (down reach) flow effects would seem to become more significant at the beginning and end of each event.The simulations also showed that the unsaturated zone remained close to saturation at all times and that it was not significant in terms of the floodplain hydrology. Examination of velocity vector patterns showed the formation of a strong groundwater ridge within the floodplain. This led to the development of strong velocities directed toward hillslope areas as the inundation front approached the hillslope/floodplain junction. This suggests that surface water may move into hillslope areas adjoining the floodplain during major floods. Thus the extent of the hyporheic zone may be larger than previously thought. Numerical Model DevelopmentA finite element model, ESTEL, was developed to simulate hillslope and channel fluxes to the floodplain alluvium during overbank flood events. Like WaTab2D [Whiting and Pomeranets, 1997] this model is also based on an exact formulation for time-dependent unconfined groundwater flow and hence provides an advance on models such as MODFLOW, which are based on the Dupuit-Forcheimer assumption. However, unlike WaTab2D, ESTEL applies to both saturated and unsaturated flow conditions, as this may be important in particular floodplain situations. The model was programmed using an object-oriented numerical library previously developed to solve the shallow water equations. For a complete description of the model and its development the reader is referred to Desitter et al. [1998, 2000], and here we provide only a brief summary of its major attributes.We solve the so-called "mixed" where t is the time (dimension T), 0 is the volumetric moisture content (L 3 L-3), h is the pressure head (L), K is the hy-
The past 20 years have seen a proliferation of numerical models in response to a need from governments, industry and researchers for tools that can simulate or predict environmental processes. Although this has led to significant scientific advances, in constructing such models code developers duplicate many basic tasks and functions. Ultimately therefore, the spread of progress is artificially restricted and the central focus of scientific activity may be misplaced. In this paper we examine the potential use of object‐oriented programming techniques to overcome this problem and facilitate easy code reuse and maintenance in the face of rapid advances in numerical analysis research. In particular, we discuss the extent to which object oriented programming styles have an affinity for numerical environmental problems that traditional procedural programming styles do not share. We illustrate this through the development of one, two and three‐dimensional finite element models for unsaturated groundwater flow using an object oriented environment developed originally for the solution of the Shallow Water equations. The complexity and quality of the solution that could be developed in a relatively limited period is demonstrated through comparison to three analytical test cases described in the literature. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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