Chicken is an excellent source of good quality protein, but it is highly susceptible to microbial contamination and often implicated in food borne disease. The microbiological quality of chicken at different retail outlets (supermarkets, local markets and farms) in Accra was investigated, and D 10 -values of E. coli in refrigerated and frozen retailed chicken was determined. The microbiological quality of chicken was studied by analyzing 27 chicken thigh samples collected from the retail outlets. D 10 -value of Escherichia coli was determined by using a linear regression model after gamma irradiation of inoculated chicken samples with doses of 0, 150, 300, 450, 600, 750 and 900 Gy. Mean total viable counts for the supermarkets, local markets and farms were 6.46, 6.91 and 6.57 log 10 cfu/g respectively. Mean total coliform counts for the supermarkets, local markets and farms were 3.80, 3.46 and 3.14 log 10 cfu/g respectively and the mean S. aureus counts were also 2.32, 2.28 and 2.70 log 10 cfu/g respectively. There were no significant differences (p > 0.05) between the mean total viable count, total coliform counts and S. aureus count for the supermarkets, local markets and the farms. Mean counts of E. coli detected at the supermarket, local markets and farms were 1.27, 2.59 and 2.74 log 10 cfu/g respectively. Salmonella spp. was detected in 2 out of the 27 samples. Fifty-two percent and 70% of samples respectively had total viable counts and total coliform counts within the microbial safety standards. Mean D 10 -values of E. coli were 0.22 and 0.32 kGy in refrigerated and frozen chicken respectively. Presence of pathogenic bacteria in fresh chicken sold in some retail outlets in Accra was confirmed. Low D 10 -values of E. coli especially under refrigerated conditions suggest susceptibility to low dose irradiation and possibility of controlling spoilage and pathogenic microflora of fresh poultry.

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Animal feed has been linked to human illness through the food chain as a result of food borne bacteria and more recently the risk of foodborne antibiotic resistance. This study investigated the extent to which radiation can be used as an intervention to improve the safety and quality of poultry feed in terms of food borne pathogens and antibiotic resistant microbes. Mean counts of control feed samples were Log10 5.98 for total viable count (TVC), Log10 4.76 for coliform count (CC), Log10 2.89 for Staphylococcus aureus count (STC), and Log10 4.57 for yeast and mold count (YMC) and Salmonella spp. (SC) was not detected (ND). All counts were within permissible levels except for CC (Log10 4.76) which was above the permissible limit of ≤ log10 4.0. Identified bacteria isolates were Enterobacter cloacae (54.5%), Bacillus cereus (27.3%), and Klebsiella pneumoniae (18.2%). All (100%) isolates exhibited multidrug Resistance (MDR) with Bacillus cereus being the most resistant (to 9 out of 11 antibiotics) followed by Enterobacter cloacae/Klebsiella pneumoniae (4 out of 11 antibiotics). Several resistance patterns were observed with PEN/AMP/FLX being the commonest (100%), followed by ERY (90.9%), TET (72.7%), CRX (66.6%), CTX (45.4%), CHL/CTR (36.4%), GEN (27.3%), and COT (18.2%). Klebsiella pneumoniae showed zero resistance to GEN/CHL/CTR/CTX/CRX while Enterobacter cloacae and Bacillus cereus exhibited zero resistance to GEN and COT, respectively. The most effective antibiotic against Gram negative bacteria (Enterobacter cloacae and Klebsiella pneumoniae) was gentamicin while cotrimoxazole was the most effective against Bacillus cereus (Gram positive). Radiation processing of 5kGy totally eliminated all microbes including MDR food borne pathogens. In view of this, we recommend low dose radiation decontamination as a measure to mitigate against the possible food safety and public health risks to humans associated with poultry feed.

The microbiological quality of macaroni and vegetable salads served with waakye, was investigated. Aerobic mesophiles counts (AMC), coliforms counts (CC) and moulds and yeasts counts (MYC) were estimated, and the coliform profiles for different samples of macaroni (raw, local/ imported, laboratory-cooked) served with waakye, and vegetable salads served with waakye were determined. Raw macaroni (local and imported) had AMC of 3.6 and 3.0 log 10 CFU/g, MYC of 1.9 and 1.0 log 10 CFU/g and no CC, respectively. Laboratorycooked local samples had AMC of 2.4 log 10 CFU/g and 3.3 log 10 CFU/g (after 4 h storage) and no MYC. Macaroni obtained from vendors had AMC mean of 3.1-8.4, CC mean of 2.5-7.3 and MYC mean of 0-4.1 log 10 CFU/g depending on time of sampling. Vegetable salads sampled at early and late morning had AMC of 6.9 and 7.6, CC of 5.7 and 6.4, MYC of 4.9 and 5.4 log 10 CFU/g, respectively. Six coliforms were detected on macaroni and three were detected in addition to Salmonella spp. on vegetable salads. No significant difference was recorded in the microbial load of raw local and imported macaroni. Cooking improved the microbial quality of raw macaroni (AMC of 2.4 log 10 CFU/g). Generally, there were increases of 3-5 log cycles in the AMC, CC and MYC in macaroni sampled from waakye vendors in the morning (early and late) compared to those at dawn. Although the nature of raw macaroni and its cooking are adequate, cross-contamination from vegetable salads during the holding and bulk display periods cause deterioration in microbial quality of macaroni in waakye. There is the need to educate vendors on simple preventive steps of keeping food hygienically safe.

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Combined effect of irradiation and frozen storage on viable bacteria and inoculated Eschericia coli in chicken was investigated. Samples of uninoculated chicken and samples of chicken inoculated with E. coli were irradiated using a Co-60 source at doses of 0, 2 ,4,6 and 8 kGy and stored for 0, 7,14,21,28, 35, 42, 49 and 56 days at -18 0 C. Samples were analyzed each week to enumerate surviving viable bacteria and E. coli. Irradiation doses of 2, 4, 6, and 8 kGy respectively reduced the population of viable bacteria in the uninoculated chicken by 2.06, 2.96, 3.91 and 4.21 log cycles. Storage for 56 days reduced populations of viable bacteria by approximately 2 log cycles for all irradiated uninoculated samples. Dose of 2 kGy reduced the population of E. coli in the unirradiated sample by 2.69 log cycles and 4, 6, 8 kGy reduced the population by > 7 log cycles. Storage for 56 days reduced the population of E. coli by 4.07 and > 3.52 log cycles respectively in the unirradiated and irradiated (2 kGy) samples. Irradiation doses of 4 to 8 kGy in combination with frozen storage were effective in reducing the populations of viable indigenous bacteria in addition to eliminating inoculated E. coli from chicken thus extending the shelf life and improving the hygienic quality.

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