Zooplankton fecal pellets, marine snow and sinking phytoplankton blooms

Abstract

Zooplankton fecal pellets have long been thought to be a dominant component of the sedimentary flux in marine and freshwater ecosystems, but that view is changing. The last 2 decades have seen publication of > 500 studies using sediment traps, which reveal that zooplankton fecal pellets often constitute only a minor or variable proportion of the sedimentary flux. Substantial proportions of this flux are from organic aggregates ('marine snow') of various origins, including phytoplankton blooms, which sediment directly to the benthos. It now appears that mainly large fecal pellets of macrozooplankton and fish are involved in the sedimentary flux. Smaller fecal pellets of microzooplankton and small mesozooplankton are mostly recycled or repackaged in the water column by microbial decomposition and coprophagy, contributing more to processes in the water column than flux to the benthos. The relative contributions of fecal pellets, marine snow and sinking phytoplankton to the vertical flux and recycling of materials in the water column are highly variable, dependent upon multiple interacting factors. These include variations in productivity, biomass, size spectra and composition of communities in the overlying water columns, and trophic interactions between various components of the plankton and nekton communities at various times, locations and depths. Other factors include differences in sinking rates, sizes, composition and pollutant contents of fecal pellets produced by various sizes of zooplankters, and zooplankton feeding-fecal pellet production interactions in relation to upwelling and El Niño periods, seasonal life-history-related zooplankton vertical migrations and long-term oceanographic regime shifts. There are also suggestions from the geological record that zooplankton fecal pellets may have been important in ancient oceans. The ecological roles of marine snow and phytoplankton aggregates in sedimentary flux also depend on a variety of interacting factors, including sources of origin, degrees of microbial colonization, depth distributions, sinking rates and ingestibility by consumers. Perhaps the major reversal of the previous paradigm on the role of fecal pellets in the sedimentary flux over the last 2 decades has been the realization that much, if not most, of the organic rain from the epipelagic to the abyss is due to direct sedimentation of aggregated phytoplankton, which does not appear to undergo consumption in the water column, and which may be related to seasonality of surface production cycles. Further, there is emerging evidence for benthic responses to sedimented phytodetritus, including apparent synchrony of reproductive cycles of some deep-sea benthic animals with seasonality of sinking of surface blooms. Such episodic input of surface phytodetritus may help resolve apparent discrepancies between average supply and demand of organic matter required to maintain benthic community metabolism. The sedimentary flux of fecal pellets, marine snow and sinking phytoplankton is an important c...

Controls on mesopelagic particle fluxes in the Sub-Antarctic and Polar Frontal Zones in the Southern Ocean south of Australia in summer—Perspectives from free-drifting sediment traps

“…3). The cylindrical faecal pellets were probably derived from copepods and euphausiids, and the ovoid faecal pellets may originate from small copepods or larvaceans (Gonzalez, 1992;Turner, 2002;Wilson et al, 2008;Wexels Riser et al, 2008).…”

“…Bishop, 1989;Buesseler, 1991;Newton, 1995, 1999;Buesseler and Boyd, 2009). Of particular interest is determining the conditions under which phytoplankton can be directly exported via physical flocculation and sinking, without passing through higher trophic levels that engender respiration losses of POC (Michaels and Silver, 1988;Alldredge and Jackson, 1995;Turner, 2002).…”

Exposure factors for marine eutrophication impacts assessment based on a mechanistic biological model

“…Sinking rates ( ) of organic material from PP and SP were adopted from Turner (2002) SP carcasses are assumed equivalent to detritus entangled in sinking marine snow and respired as such (Iversen and Ploug, 2010;Tang and Elliott, 2013). We assumed a consumption rate similar to that of sinking faecal pellets ( _ , from Eq.…”

Coprophagy and coprorhexy in the copepods Acartia tonsa and Temora longicornis: clearance rates and feeding behaviour

“…Numerous field studies (> 500) using sediment traps have revealed that zooplankton fecal pellets often constitute a minor portion of the sedimentary flux, much less than what would be expected from the zooplankton abundances and expected fecal pellet production rates (González & Smetacek 1994, Turner 2002. A reduced vertical flux is often attributed to recycling and repackaging of the fecal pellets by coprophagous (ingestion of pellets) copepods (Smetacek 1980, Bathmann et al 1987, González & Smetacek 1994, González et al 1994a, Lane et al 1994, Urban-Rich et al 1999.…”

“…A reduced vertical flux is often attributed to recycling and repackaging of the fecal pellets by coprophagous (ingestion of pellets) copepods (Smetacek 1980, Bathmann et al 1987, González & Smetacek 1994, González et al 1994a, Lane et al 1994, Urban-Rich et al 1999. Also, coprorhexy (fragmentation of pellets) and coprochaly (loosening of pellets) may increase the residence time of fecal material in the water column (Lampitt et al 1990, Noji et al 1991) and make it subject to enhanced microbial degradation (Turner 2002), thus accelerating recycling of fecal pellet material in the water column.…”