Zoonotic Risk of Encephalitozoon cuniculi in Animal-Assisted Interventions: Laboratory Strategies for the Diagnosis of Infections in Humans and Animals

Abstract

The involvement of animals for therapeutic purposes has very ancient roots. To date, it is clear that animal-assisted interventions (AAIs), in addition to ensuring the replacement of missing or deficient affects, improves psychophysiological parameters connected to human health. However, AAI could potentially present risks related to the transmission of infectious agents from animals to humans. Among these microorganisms, E. cuniculi is a microspore which induces pathological effects (fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, breathlessness, respiratory symptoms, and weakness) in both humans and animals. Consequently, an accurate and fast diagnosis of E. cuniculi infection, as well as the identification of new diagnostic approaches, is of fundamental importance. This literature review was carried out to provide an extensive and comprehensive analysis of the most recent diagnostic techniques to prevent and care for E. cuniculi-associated risks in the AAI field.

SARS-CoV-2 Affects Both Humans and Animals: What Is the Potential Transmission Risk? A Literature Review

“…Anthropogenic changes in the ecosystem have resulted in an increase in shared habitats between humans and animals, offering multiple pathways of translocation for the spread of emerging infectious diseases [ 128 ]. The current literature focuses on the emerging pathogens of animal origin [ 5 , 126 , 129 ], while scientific papers rarely mention the role of humans in the variety of emerging diseases affecting the animal kingdom [ 130 ]. Currently, both animals and humans suffer from the negative effects of a changed human–animal bond; therefore, the concept of bidirectional zoonosis, that is, the transmission of high-risk and multi-resistant pathogens from humans to animals, should not be underestimated [ 131 , 132 ].…”

“…Moreover, zoonoses are estimated to be responsible for 2.5 billion cases of disease and 2.7 million deaths worldwide each year [ 4 ]. Indeed, although some zoonotic diseases are relatively benign, such as encephalitozoon cuniculi infections [ 5 ] or dermatophytosis [ 6 ], several others are quite harmful.…”

A multidisciplinary review about Encephalitozoon cuniculi in a One Health perspective

“…In addition to AIDS patients, other groups of people are considered to be at risk such as cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy, the elderly and children, diabetic patients, and travelers (Didier and Weiss 2011 ), but also organ transplant recipients (Talabani et al 2010 ; Didier and Weiss 2011 ; Hocevar et al 2014 ; Ladapo et al 2014 ; Kicia et al 2019 ), employees of slaughterhouse (Halánová et al 2003 ), and animal care workers (Ozkan et al 2011 ; Sak et al 2011b ; Carhan et al 2015 ). Moreover, in a recent review, the potential zoonotic risk for patients undergoing animal-assisted interventions was highlighted, due to the close and continued physical contact that these therapies often require (Santaniello et al 2021 ).…”

Encephalitozoon cuniculi Infection of Domestic Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in Slovenia between 2017 and 2021

“…These animals were mainly brought to the clinic for testing by owners, who are aware of encephalitozoonosis and its risks. This might show that there is a rising awareness of E. cuniculi among owners of pet rabbits, which is of great importance because it is a potential zoonosis [26]. The information about the serological status is primarily also beneficial for the veterinarian treating the affected rabbit.…”