You are what you eat, and so are your children: the impact of micronutrients on the epigenetic programming of offspring

Abstract

The research field of fetal programming has developed tremendously over the years and increasing knowledge suggests that both maternal and paternal unbalanced diet can have long-lasting effects on the health of offspring. Studies implicate that macronutrients play an important role in fetal programming, although the importance of micronutrients is also becoming increasingly apparent. Folic acid and vitamins B2, B6 and B12 are essential for one-carbon metabolism and are involved in DNA methylation. They can therefore influence the programming of the offspring's epigenome. Also, other micronutrients such as vitamins A and C, iron, chromium, zinc and flavonoids play a role in fetal programming. Since it is estimated that approximately 78 % of pregnant women in the US take vitamin supplements during pregnancy, more attention should be given to the long-term effects of these supplements on offspring. In this review we address several different studies which illustrate that an unbalanced diet prior and during pregnancy, regarding the intake of micronutrients of both mother and father, can have long-lasting effects on the health of adult offspring.

Placental contribution to nutritional programming of health and diseases: epigenetics and sexual dimorphism

“…Epigenetics, because of its dynamic nature, can be sensitive to the environment and there is an obvious link between nutrition, energy metabolism and epigenetic processes (Delage and Dashwood, 2008;Choi and Friso, 2010;Gabory et al, 2011;Lillycrop and Burdge, 2012;Kaelin and McKnight, 2013;Vanhees et al, 2014). Briefly, nutrients and their metabolites can be direct substrates of the epigenetic machinery enzymes that appose the epigenetic marks.…”

Abnormal immune system development and function in schizophrenia helps reconcile diverse findings and suggests new treatment and prevention strategies

“…Increased maternal levels of interleukin-8 (IL-8), for example, have been associated with increased risk for schizophrenia in offspring (Brown, 2006). Epigenetic manifestations are influenced by these pathways, as well (Prescott, 2013;Vanhees et al, 2014). Early evidence from experimental studies using mice links both maternal malnutrition and inutero immune activation to epigenetic alterations and subsequent neurodevelopment effects similar to those found in schizophrenia (Tang et al, 2013;Xu et al, 2014).…”

Epigenetics and Metabolism

“…25 The effects of maternal folate diet are complicated and require further study, with both low and high folate intake associated with increased disease risk in adult offspring. 15 For instance, standard recommended maternal daily intake of 0.4 mg/d was associated with lower birth weight and altered DNA methylation of IGF2. 202 Finally, the importance of histone acetylation for gestational programming by HFD is also highlighted by several recent studies.…”

“…15 Although not exhaustive, this review discusses the most recent key findings that link cellular metabolism with chromatin-dependent gene changes. Emphasis is placed on observations that define this nexus in metabolically important organs such as the pancreas and liver, with pronounced implications for human metabolic health.…”