Yellow Fever: Origin, Epidemiology, Preventive Strategies and Future Prospects

Abstract

Yellow fever (YF) virus still represents a major threat in low resource countries in both South America and Africa despite the presence of an effective vaccine. YF outbreaks are not only due to insufficient vaccine coverage for insufficient vaccine supply, but also to the increase in people without history of vaccination living in endemic areas. Globalization, continuous population growth, urbanization associated with inadequate public health infrastructure, and climate changes constitute important promoting factors for the spread of this virus to tropical and subtropical areas in mosquito-infested regions capable of spreading the disease. In the present review, we focus on the origin of the virus and its transmission, representing two debated topics throughout the nineteenth century, going deeply into the history of YF vaccines until the development of the vaccine still used nowadays. Besides surveillance, we highlight the urgent need of routine immunization and vaccination campaigns associated to diverse and innovative mosquito control technologies in endemic areas for YF virus in order to minimize the risk of new YF outbreaks and the global burden of YF in the future.

Mosquito Vectors (Diptera: Culicidae) and Mosquito-Borne Diseases in North Africa

“…It is distributed in tropical and subtropical areas of central and south America and Africa [ 170 ]. The virus was isolated for the first time in 1927, in a male patient [ 171 ]. YF infection can cause the onset of varying clinical features, ranging from a self-limited or mild febrile illness with flu-like symptoms in most cases, to severe hemorrhage and liver disease [ 171 ].…”

“…The virus was isolated for the first time in 1927, in a male patient [ 171 ]. YF infection can cause the onset of varying clinical features, ranging from a self-limited or mild febrile illness with flu-like symptoms in most cases, to severe hemorrhage and liver disease [ 171 ]. The “yellow” comes from jaundice, which affects some patients [ 170 ].…”

Absence of transmission of vYF next generation Yellow Fever vaccine in mosquitoes

“…Yellow fever (YF) is caused by a flavivirus belonging to the family Flaviviridae and is transmitted by the Aedes aegypti mosquito. Most likely originating in Africa, it was introduced into the Americas in the 1600s during the slave trade, alongside the mosquito vector [ 1 ]. It was the beginning of devastating outbreaks, mainly in port cities where most people were immunologically naïve and susceptible to infection.…”

“…YF global burden is still high with the disease endemic in tropical and subtropical regions of South America and Africa [ 1 ]. The virus circulates originally within a sylvatic cycle between non-human primates and canopy-dwelling mosquitoes.…”

Bis(Benzofuran–1,3-N,N-heterocycle)s as Symmetric and Synthetic Drug Leads against Yellow Fever Virus

“…Nevertheless, the mass vaccination still cannot ward off the potential outbreaks due to the resurgence of infected mosquitoes in heavily populated areas. Other factors such as a decreased immunity to the infection of individuals, ongoing deforestation, increasing people′s movements/urbanization, and climate change also lead this infectious disease to sustain continuously [ 4 ]. As a consequence, YFV is spreading much faster than before because of the frequent travelers from endemic regions to other parts of the world [ 5 ].…”