Calling out, engaging in side conversations with peers, getting out of one's seat, playing with objects-although common to many classroom settings, these types of disruptions can significantly interfere with the learning of the students involved and their larger community of peers (Walker et al., 1994). A 1995 poll conducted by the American Federation of Teachers found that 17% of classroom teachers reported losing 4 or more hours of instructional time each week due to disruptive behavior (Walker, Ramsey, & Gresham, 2003-2004. As such, a great deal of empirical attention has been paid over the past half century to the development and evaluation of teacherdirected strategies for reducing disruptive behavior; those strategies have ranged from the use of deliberate praise and ignoring to token economies and group contingencies (Stage & Quiroz, 1997). Although positive behavior change has been documented, a central limitation of teacher-directed interventions is that behavior remains externally managed. The importance