Worldwide Variation in Human Milk Metabolome: Indicators of Breast Physiology and Maternal Lifestyle?

Abstract

Human milk provides essential substrates for the optimal growth and development of a breastfed infant. Besides providing nutrients to the infant, human milk also contains metabolites which form an intricate system between maternal lifestyle, such as the mother’s diet and the gut microbiome, and infant outcomes. This study investigates the variation of these human milk metabolites from five different countries. Human milk samples (n = 109) were collected one month postpartum from Australia, Japan, the USA, Norway, and South Africa and were analyzed by nuclear magnetic resonance. The partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) showed separation between either maternal countries of origin or ethnicities. Variation between countries in concentration of metabolites, such as 2-oxoglutarate, creatine, and glutamine, in human milk, between countries, could provide insights into problems, such as mastitis and/or impaired functions of the mammary glands. Several important markers of milk production, such as lactose, betaine, creatine, glutamate, and glutamine, showed good correlation between each metabolite. This work highlights the importance of milk metabolites with respect to maternal lifestyle and the environment, and also provides the framework for future breastfeeding and microbiome studies in a global context.

A Review of the Immunomodulating Components of Maternal Breast Milk and Protection Against Necrotizing Enterocolitis

“…The dietary intake of the breastfeeding mother has been shown to influence the variability of human milk concentrations of fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins and other nutrients. These nutrients, including immunoglobulins, growth factors, cytokines, and immune cells, have been demonstrated to transfer from the mother to the neonate through breast milk [87,88]. The ability of these components to regulate intestinal cell proliferation and differentiation as well as influence gut microbial colonization emphasizes the protective role of breast milk in infant metabolism and neurodevelopment, intestinal microbial homeostasis, and protection against NEC [87,88].…”

“…These nutrients, including immunoglobulins, growth factors, cytokines, and immune cells, have been demonstrated to transfer from the mother to the neonate through breast milk [87,88]. The ability of these components to regulate intestinal cell proliferation and differentiation as well as influence gut microbial colonization emphasizes the protective role of breast milk in infant metabolism and neurodevelopment, intestinal microbial homeostasis, and protection against NEC [87,88]. The growing field of research studying the outcomes related to breastfeeding reinforces the immunological value of breast milk on infant nutrition and protection from inflammatory disorders such as NEC.…”

Fecal Microbiotas of Indonesian and New Zealand Children Differ in Complexity and Bifidobacterial Taxa during the First Year of Life

“…The composition of breast milk has been reported to differ between mothers in different countries and even between mothers in different locations in the same country (49)(50)(51)(52)(53)(54)(55). Comparisons of HMO contents and other biochemical features of Indonesian and NZ breast milks have not been made, which may be a topic worth investigating further.…”

Investigation of the Defatted Colostrum 1H-NMR Metabolomics Profile of Gilts and Multiparous Sows and Its Relationship with Litter Performance

“…The effect of parity number on swine colostrum composition was mainly investigated in terms of immunoglobulin, fat, protein, lactose, and net energy concentrations [11,12]. Recently, the development of new technological tools allowed the description of the colostrum and milk metabolomics profile, defined as the comprehensive characterization and quantification of metabolites, which may have a bioactive and beneficial effect on the neonates [13,14]. Few studies investigated the swine colostrum metabolome composition [15][16][17] and the relationship between colostrum metabolites and sows' productive traits [17,18].…”