Women's increased vulnerability to mood disorders: Integrating psychobiology and epidemiology

Abstract

Beyond the repeatedly confirmed finding that women greatly outnumber men among those diagnosed with mood disorders lies a widely‐varying set of hypotheses that attempt to explain affective disorders from various perspectives. This article reviews the epidemiological and diagnostic factors that account for the finding. In addition, we review some of the current hypothetical constructs of the etiology and pathophysiology of depression and their potential relevance to the disproportionate number of women with unipolar depression. Particular attention is paid to the unique biological stages of a women's life and the differences between the biology of men and women. We also review some of the potential social, psychological, and environmental factors that might particularly promote the development of depression in women. Depression 3:3–12 (1995). © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc .

Depression and Social Support among HIV-Affected Adolescents

“…1 Approximately twice as many women as men are affected by depression. 2,3 Furthermore, depression is a recurrent disorder, with over 80% of depressed patients having more than one depressive episode, and over 50% of depressed patients relapsing within 2 years of recovery. [4][5][6] Depression is associated with suicide, 7 an increased mortality risk from other causes of death, 8 and other negative outcomes including substance abuse.…”

Violence against women and girls: Mapping the health consequences

“…Not surprisingly, research on differences in rates of psychiatric disorder between men and women has often focussed on identifying the biological basis of these differences. Biological risk factors investigated include responses to stress including differences in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activation and cortisol levels; differences in levels of such neurotransmitters as serotonin as well as genetic and endocrinological differences including the possible role of ovarian steroids [8][9][10].…”

Predictors of Depressive and Anxiety Symptoms among African American HIV-positive Women

“…The prevalence of HIV infections in the heterosexual community has led to an epidemic that directly affects women of childbearing age. Women are at increased risk for major depression Blehar & Oren, 1995;M. C. Harter, Conway, & Merikangas, 2003; R. C. Kessler, McGonagle, Swartz, Blazer, & Nelson, 1993) irrespective of their HIV status and at even greater risk for depression in the presence of HIV infection (Rabkin, Johnson et al, 1997).…”

“…Hirschfeld (Hirschfeld, 2001) recognized a lack of information regarding the co-existence of these disorders in primary care settings, and subsequent epidemiologic studies (R. C. Kessler et al, 2005) illustrate high levels of co-morbid conditions within both the general population and in primary care populations (Rodriguez et al, 2004). Because previous research indicates that the prevalence of depression and anxiety is higher in women than men (Blehar & Oren, 1995;Breslau et al, 1995;J. M. Murphy et al, 2004;Olfson et al, 2000) and these conditions often co-exist, it reasonable to expect women to experience co-morbid depression and anxiety more often than men.…”