Women’s Changing Opportunities and Aspirations Amid Male Outmigration: Insights from Makueni County, Kenya

Abstract

In Makueni County, Kenya, an area experiencing intensifying migration flows, we investigate the aspired futures of rural men and women using a novel methodology combining a narrative-based survey tool, focus group discussions and semi-structured interviews. Our findings indicate that, in the absence of men and presence of norms restricting women's movement out of rural life, women are becoming increasingly engaged in farm management. Women’s aspirational narratives focused on commercialising farm activities, likely reflecting their changing agricultural opportunity space and new realities as farm managers. We highlight that only considering aspirations at the household level overlooks differing individual contributions, agency over various household income streams and individuals’ changing roles throughout life. Based on our findings, we make recommendations for further aspirations research including explicit consideration of intrahousehold heterogeneity and how individual strategies and aspirations interrelate and are negotiated at the household level to build an overall livelihood strategy.

Onto the Farm, into the Home: How Intrahousehold Gender Dynamics Shape Land Restoration in Eastern Kenya

“…Furthermore, we found that women are heavily involved in uptake decisions, including those regarding tree planting, and that even women with resident husbands may be able to contest restoration decisions. These findings challenge the narrative that men in eastern Kenya are the chief decision-makers over farming and tree planting (Muok et al 1998, Kiptot et al 2014, and likely reflect women's increased participation in agricultural workshops and farm management in the absence of their male relatives (Crossland et al 2021). Similar to other studies, our findings indicate that when women attend agricultural workshops and are allowed to implement their knowledge, they gain more confidence and recognition that can lead to greater agency in farming decisions (Nyasimi andHuyer 2017, Bullock andTegbaru 2019).…”

“…Similarly, 49% of Makueni participants reported having a secondary source of income from off-farm activities, compared to only 35% and 22% in Kitui and Machakos counties, respectively. This likely reflects the high rates of male outmigration and off-farm employment found in Makueni County (Crossland et al 2021). Households in Kitui were also less well-off than in Machakos and Makueni counties, in that they were more dependent on food aid, less connected and live in less permanent housing.…”

Not All About Farming: Understanding Aspirations Can Challenge Assumptions About Rural Development

“…Yet, aspirations are not purely shaped by individual desires (Huijsmans et al 2020). Social pressures, norms and expectations also play a role in their formation and expression (Bennike et al 2020;Crossland et al 2021). For example, in many communities 'farming' is not only an income generation activity but is also perceived as a lifestyle.…”

“…Makueni is the only county in which most people see themselves farming more than half of their time. This may be, at least partially, explained by the high number of female respondents in this site (64% women) and the feminised nature of farm management in the county amid increasing male-outmigration (see Crossland et al 2021).…”

“…In line with Kihoro et al (2021) for the case of Tanzanian dairy producers, this changes potential targets for dissemination efforts significantly from the current mainstream assumption that all households are farming-focussed and are therefore interested in farming innovations. It should also be recognised that aspirations are likely to vary within the household and that some members may wish to engage and invest in farming even when others look to step out (Crossland et al 2021).…”