Women and Depression: A 30 Year Learning Curve

Abstract

This paper reviews 30 years of longitudinal research, initially undertaken to examine gender differences in rates of major depression and psychosocial risk factors for depression. The research focus has broadened to include the impact of anxiety on depression onset, coping styles for stress and depression, genetic and environmental influences on depression onset, and more recently, a shift towards examining positive mental health. The original cohort consisted of a socially homogenous group of postgraduate teacher trainees and does not attempt to represent the normal variability in an adult population. However, the issues raised by this research provide many insights about real and artefactual factors that contribute to the rate and experience of depression. The study findings are supplemented by data from other studies undertaken by this research team that are pertinent to the topic and add weight to some of the observations from the Teachers' Study.

Successful transition to later life: Strategies used by baby boomers

“…They had negligible forensic history, high rates of help-seeking among both men and women, and high prevalence of anxiety and depression. [8,9]. They are consistent and articulate reporters of their experience and provide a window into the concerns of better educated Baby Boomer cohorts.…”

“…The initial research assessed risk factors for anxiety and depression [8], but the focus has changed to consider questions related to life satisfaction and well-being. The longitudinal study design allowed a well-documented psychiatric history for each participant [9].…”

“…For lifetime depression history 53% reported at least one episode of major depression and 22% had repeated episodes [9].…”

Relationship between mental health and spiritual wellbeing among hemodialysis patients: a correlation study

“…In women, high levels of psychological stress may be attributed to factors including marriage, raising children, work and hormonal changes. [12][13][14][15][16][17][18] Performance anxiety was associated with shorter length of time on HD. According to Diniz et al, 19 the initial phase of HD results in psychological distress due to the required use of lifesupport equipment, which limits patient autonomy.…”

Beyond Workers’ Compensation

“…Commentaries about men's depression, however, suggest that the lower reported rates might be due to the widespread use of generic diagnostic criteria that are not sensitive to depression in men (Blair-West & Mellsop, 2001;Brownhill, Wilhelm, Barclay, & Schmied, 2005;Cochran & Rabinowitz, 2003;Courtenay, 1998;Kilmartin, 2005;Winkler et al, 2006;Winkler, Pjrek, & Heiden, 2004), as well as men's reluctance to express concerns about their mental health and reticence to seek professional health care (Emslie, Ridge, Ziebland, & Hunt, 2006;Sharpe & Heppner, 1991;Winkler et al, 2006). Severe depression can also significantly increase the risk for suicide; yet despite low reported rates of male depression (Emslie et al, 2006;Kessler et al, 2005;Wilhelm et al, 2008;World Health Organization, n.d.), suicide rates are approximately four times higher in Western men than in women (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012; Hawton & van Heeringen, 2009;Levi et al, 2003;Moller-Leimkuhler, 2003;Rihmer, Belso, & Kiss, 2002;Statistics Canada, 2012a, 2012bWasserman, 2000;Wolfgang & Zoltan, 2007). The discordant relationship between men's depression and suicide has led researchers to describe some contributing and confounding work-related factors.…”