Why the Confucians had no concept of race (Part II): Cultural difference, environment, and achievement

Abstract

This paper argues that Confucianism had an anti‐essentialist conception of selfhood. This understanding of self means that they did not have, and could not have had, a concept of “race” in the sense that one's essence determines one's becoming. In the Confucian canon, the embodiment of cultural norms/performance of culturally appropriate actions defines one's humanness. This account of human agency in becoming human can be seen in the Confucian explanation of moral failure. This assumption of human agency also means that the Confucian understanding of hierarchy is social as opposed to ontological and that differences between people are understood to be a result of culture–custom variation.