Why heterogeneous cloud particles matter

Abstract

Context. The possibility of observing spectral features in exoplanet atmospheres with space missions like the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) and Atmospheric Remote-sensing Infrared Exoplanet Large-survey (ARIEL) necessitates the accurate modelling of cloud particle opacities. In exoplanet atmospheres, cloud particles can be made from multiple materials and be considerably chemically heterogeneous. Therefore, assumptions on the morphology of cloud particles are required to calculate their opacities. Aims. The aim of this work is to analyse how different approaches to calculate the opacities of heterogeneous cloud particles affect the optical properties of cloud particles and how this may influence the interpretation of data observed by JWST and future missions. Methods. We calculated cloud particle optical properties using seven different mixing treatments: four effective medium theories (EMTs; Bruggeman, Landau-Lifshitz-Looyenga (LLL), Maxwell-Garnett, and Linear), core-shell, and two homogeneous cloud particle approximations. We conducted a parameter study using two-component materials to study the mixing behaviour of 21 commonly considered cloud particle materials for exoplanets. To analyse the impact on observations, we studied the transmission spectra of HATS-6b, WASP-39b, WASP-76b, and WASP-107b. Results. Materials with large refractive indices, like iron-bearing species or carbon, can change the optical properties of cloud particles when they comprise less than 1% of the total particle volume. The mixing treatment of heterogeneous cloud particles also has an observable effect on transmission spectroscopy. Assuming core-shell or homogeneous cloud particles results in less muting of molecular features and retains the cloud spectral features of the individual cloud particle materials. The predicted transit depths for core-shell and homogeneous cloud particle materials are similar for all planets used in this work. If EMTs are used, cloud spectral features are broader and the cloud spectral features of the individual cloud particle materials are not retained. Using LLL leads to fewer molecular features in transmission spectra than when using Bruggeman.