Why Extreme Dilutions Reach Non-zero Asymptotes: A Nanoparticulate Hypothesis Based on Froth Flotation

Abstract

Extreme dilutions, especially homeopathic remedies of 30c, 200c, and higher potencies, are prepared by a process of serial dilution of 1:100 per step. As a result, dilution factors of 10(60), 10(400), or even greater are achieved. Therefore, both the presence of any active ingredient and the therapeutic efficacy of these medicines have been contentious because the existence of even traces of the starting raw materials in them is inconceivable. However, physicochemical studies of these solutions have unequivocally established the presence of the starting raw materials in nanoparticulate form even in these extreme (super-Avogadro, >10(23)) dilutions. In this article, we propose and validate a hypothesis to explain how nanoparticles are retained even at such enormous dilution levels. We show that once the bulk concentration is below a threshold level of a few nanograms/milliliter (ng/mL), at the end of each dilution step, all of the nanoparticles levitate to the surface and are accommodated as a monolayer at the top. This dominant population at the air-liquid interface is preserved and carried to the subsequent step, thereby forming an asymptotic concentration. Thus, all dilutions are only apparent and not real in terms of the concentrations of the starting raw materials.

Nonlinear Response Amplification Mechanisms for Low Doses of Natural Product Nanomedicines: Dynamical Interactions with the Recipient Complex Adaptive System

“…Nanobubbles made during the manufacturing process may also contribute to the final product [8,10,11], which retains physicochemical properties of the original source material [12]. The evidence further suggests the presence of a polydisperse population of the source NPs in homeopathic medicines [3].…”

“…Lactose may serve as a reducing, capping, and coating agent to modify and deliver homeopathically-made NPs [11,[22][23][24][25][26].…”

“…These similarities include mechanically grinding source materials in lactose for hours and repeatedly agitating ethanol-water solutions containing the source materials within glass containers at room temperature. Lactose may serve as a reducing, capping, and coating agent to modify and deliver homeopathically-made NPs [11,[22][23][24][25][26].…”

“…Ethanol can affect nanosilica particle sizes and shapes [33]. Evidence on homeopathicallyprepared materials and on modern nanoparticles suggests that lactose on the NP surface can change the physico-chemical properties [11] and/or ability to enter cancer cells [23]. Surface charge can also affect cancer cell response to NP treatments [171].…”

Role of Homeopathy in Integrative Cancer Care

“…Chikramane et al showed that once the bulk concentration is below a threshold level of a few ng/ml all of the nanoparticles levitate to the surface and are accommodated as a monolayer at the top where it is preserved and carried to the subsequent step, thereby forming an asymptotic concentration. Thus, they claim that all dilutions are only apparent and not real in terms of the concentrations of the starting raw materials [53]. Specific nanoparticle of the starting substance in homeopathic may treat infections via improved bioavailability and have antiinflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory effects [54].…”