“…We now estimate Equation (1) omitting country fixed effects and including instead a set of indices, defined at the country-year level, related to factors associated with commuting behavior. These indices, obtained from the World Bank Database, serve as proxies for transport infrastructure, road security, travel behavior, economic growth, and urban distribution, all of which have been identified as determinants of commuting time (Naess, 2003(Naess, , 2006(Naess, , 2009Santos et al, 2013;Mitra and Saphores, 2019;Gimenez-Nadal, Molina and Velilla, 2020a). Specifically, we consider the number of passengers carried by railway, multiplied by kilometers traveled (divided by 1,000), and the length of railway routes available for train service (divided by 1,000), as national indices for transport infrastructure availability.…”