‘Who will comfort me?’ Stigmatization of girls formerly associated with armed forces and groups in eastern Congo

Abstract

This empirical article is based on a study of stigmatization of girls formerly associated with armed forces and groups (AFG) in the eastern Congo, and presents a detailed description of how these girls are perceived when returning home. The study reveals that the society views with suspicion those who are or have been part of an armed force or group. People believe that girls having been with an armed group will attract male soldiers to their villages, they are perceived as violent, thieves, promiscuous, and carriers of transmittable diseases, and they are thought to have a bad influence on the behaviour of their peers. These fears and prejudices are translated into stigmatizing behaviour such as name-calling, rejection, social exclusion, and discriminating treatment. Women are identified as those most actively involved in the stigmatization. The stigmatization the girls formerly associated with AFG experience hampers their reintegration process, and can be likened to a second traumatisation. In its discussion the article identifies some important factors impacting on the degree of stigmatization, and distinguishes between two categories: (1) pre-return factors; and (2) post-return factors that may reinforce or reduce the stigmatization. The evidence in this study supports the view that stigmatization is prevalent and poses a major challenge to the reintegration process of girls formerly associated with AFG. The article concludes that the more empowered and financially independent these girls become the less problems and stigmatization they will face

‘A Girl Who Gets Pregnant or Spends the Night with a Man is No Longer a Girl’: Forced Marriage in the Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo

“…Studies in the DRC suggest that the sense of shame seemed to be intensified in the Congolese young women who become pregnant due to the rape. She is also mistreated and rejected by communities (Mukwege and Nangini 2009;Oxfam 2010;Tonheim 2012). Our findings also suggest that boys often deny their girlfriends' pregnancy.…”

“…Previous studies in the DRC have never explored forced marriage resulting from girls' falling pregnant and spending a night with a man. Although many previous studies have superficially examined forced marriage in relation to girls and women's abduction and kidnapping by armed men (Bunting 2012;Nelson et al 2011;Niyonizigiye 2010;Oxfam 2010;Palmer 2009;Tonheim 2012), there is a strong need to explore forced marriage involving girls' falling pregnant and spending a night with a man. This is the first such study.…”

“…Additionally, Tonheim (2012) remarks that the fact that most of the children are born out of rape and forced marriages further contests the traditional way of thinking. South Kivu is a patriarchal society where the child belongs to the family of the father, and it is therefore regarded as a mark of disgraced for a child to have an unknown and absent father.…”

“…In a paternalistic culture it is expected that the upbringing of a child is taken care of by the father and his family. The current paper will not discuss marriage without consent in times of war or insecurity in South Kivu characterised by militias' kidnapping and forced marriage (Nelson et al 2011;Niyonizigiye 2010;Tonheim 2012). It concerns civilians or parents forcing young people to marry without consent.…”

Genuine social inclusion or superficial co-existence? Former girl soldiers in eastern Congo returning home

“…Moreover, rejection of the children of former girl soldiers appears to be of 'the same intensity, if not exceeding, that which their mothers experience'. 21 Generally, family members do not want to care for 'military-children' and children they perceive to be of Rwandese origin. The female ex child soldiers who became mothers when part of the armed force or group may be asked to get rid of their children, to bring them back to their father, as the common thought is that that is where these children belong.…”