Whitefly Parasitoids: Distribution, Life History, Bionomics, and Utilization

Abstract

Whiteflies are small hemipterans numbering more than 1,550 described species, of which about 50 are agricultural pests. Adults are free-living, whereas late first to fourth instars are sessile on the plant. All known species of whitefly parasitoids belong to Hymenoptera; two genera, Encarsia and Eretmocerus, occur worldwide, and others are mostly specific to different continents. All parasitoid eggs are laid in-or in Eretmocerus, under-the host. They develop within whitefly nymphs and emerge from the fourth instar, and in Cales, from either the third or fourth instar. Parasitized hosts are recognized by conspecifics, but super- and hyperparasitism occur. Dispersal flights are influenced by gender and mating status, but no long-range attraction to whitefly presence on leaves is known. Studies on En. formosa have laid the foundation for behavioral studies and biological control in general. We review past and ongoing studies of whitefly parasitoids worldwide, updating available information on species diversity, biology, behavior, tritrophic interactions, and utilization in pest management.

Biological control of Anastrepha Schiner (Dptera: Tephritidae) through augmentative releases of Diachasmimorpha longicaudata Ashmead (Hymenoptera; Braconidae) in fruit-producing marginal areas of Northern Nayarit, Mxico

“…As an essential element within the pest management component, parasitoids are considered as efficient candidates for biological control of insects (Liu et al, 2015). In this sense, biological control represents one of the strategies with greater ecological orientation that can be integrated with control programs or eradication (Montoya and Cancino, 2004).…”

Eretmocerus warrae prefer to attack mid-aged hosts to gain fitness for both adults and their offspring

“…Control of whiteflies with parasitoids has been a landmark in biological control (reviewed by Liu et al, 2015). Although control of T. vaporariorum using Encarsia formosa Gahan in greenhouses has been practiced worldwide for decades, this parasitoid appears to be less effective against T. vaporariorum than some Eretmocerus species (Gerling et al, 1991(Gerling et al, , 1998(Gerling et al, , 2009Gerling and Blackburn, 2013) probably because it is more sensitive to temperature which is disadvantaged above 20°C (Qiu et al, 2004).…”

“…Unlike other parasitoids of whiteflies that insert their eggs directly into the whitefly nymphs, Eretmocerus species lay eggs between the whitefly nymphs and the leaf surface, eggs hatch under the hosts, and the first instar larvae penetrate the hosts when the latter reach the fourth instar (Gerling et al, 1990(Gerling et al, , 1998Gelman et al, 2005; reviewed by Liu et al, 2015). Host feeding is essential for egg production and somatic maintenance in pro-synovigenic and synovigenic wasps such as Eretmocerus species (Jervis and Kidd, 1986;Zhang et al, 2014;Liu et al, 2015;Hanan et al, 2015).…”

“…Host feeding is essential for egg production and somatic maintenance in pro-synovigenic and synovigenic wasps such as Eretmocerus species (Jervis and Kidd, 1986;Zhang et al, 2014;Liu et al, 2015;Hanan et al, 2015). Eretmocerus females penetrate the host's vasiform orifice with their ovipositor to make wound and then feed on the haemolymph that exudes from the wound, eventually killing the host (Gerling et al, 1998).…”

Parasitism, host feeding and immature development of Encarsia formosa reared from Trialeurodes vaporariorum and Bemisia tabaci on Trialeurodes ricini

“…Using natural enemies to control whitefly pests has become more popular with an increasing focus on sustainable agriculture. Parasitoid wasps from Encarsia and Eretmocerus are often used to control the two above-mentioned whitefly species and have achieved some successes (van Lenteren et al 1996;Hoddle et al 1998;Gerling et al 2001;Oliveira et al 2001;Xiao et al 2011;Liu et al 2015).…”