Which Emotions Can be Induced by Music? What Are the Underlying Mechanisms? And How Can We Measure Them?

Abstract

The study of emotional effects of music is handicapped by a lack of appropriate research paradigms and methods, due to a dearth of conceptual-theoretical analyses of the process underlying emotion production via music. It is shown that none of the three major assessment methods for emotion induction -lists of basic emotions, valence-arousal dimensions, and eclectic emotion inventories -is well suited to the task. By focusing on a small number of evolutionarily continuous basic emotions one downplays the more complex forms of emotional processes in humans, especially affective feeling states produced by music which do not serve adaptive behavioral functions. Similarly, a description of emotional effects of music limited to valence and arousal gradations precludes assessment of the kind of qualitative differentiation required by the study of the subtle emotional effects of music. Finally, eclectic lists of emotions generated by researchers to suit the needs of a particular study may lack validity and reliability and render a comparison of research results difficult. A second problem consists in the tendency to assume that "emotions" and "feelings" are synonyms. It is suggested that "feelings" can be profitably conceptualized as a central component of emotion, which integrates all other components and serves as the basis for the conscious representation of emotional processes and for affect regulation. It is proposed that a radical paradigm change is required to free research on the emotional effects of music from the excessive constraints imposed by these two common misconceptions. Concretely, it is suggested that affect produced by music should be studied as (more or less conscious) feelings that integrate cognitive and physiological effects, which may be accounted for by widely different production rules. Suggestions for new ways of measuring affective states induced by music are made.

Who Enjoys Listening to Sad Music and Why?

“…Three findings support this interpretation. First, sad music evoked, in addition to sadness, a range of positively toned, aesthetic emotions (see e.g., Scherer, 2004;Zentner et al, 2008). Second, those most able to appreciate aesthetic experiences and beauty -those highest in the trait Openness to Experience -most liked sad music.…”

“…If sad music indeed evokes complex, aesthetic emotions (see e.g., Scherer, 2004), such experiences may be especially appealing to individuals with certain personalities. The trait Openness to Experience is related to a sensitivity to art and beauty (McCrae & Sutin, 2009), to a preference for diverse and complex music styles (e.g., Rentfrow & Gosling, 2003), and to the experience of aesthetic chills in response to music (Nusbaum & Silvia, 2011).…”

Emotional Ornamentation in Performances of a Handel Sonata

“…Listeners' experience of emotions may be more subjective and socially dependent than their perception of emotion (see for discussions Gabrielsson, 2001Gabrielsson, /2002Scherer, 2004;Scherer & Zentner, 2001).Previous research has shown that listeners are quite consistent in labeling music with an emotional quality, especially where it concerns basic emotions (Gabrielsson & Juslin, 2003). This research has started to distinguish relevant musical features that are responsible for labeling music with a specific emotional category.…”

Alteration of complex negative emotions induced by music in euthymic patients with bipolar disorder

“…However, in this study, as in many others, participants were asked to recognize the emotions conveyed by the music, but not to assess their emotional experience when listening to the music. In the psychology of emotions and music psychology, a distinction is made between the recognition of emotions and the actual experience of emotions (Gabrielson and Juslin, 2003;Scherer, 2004). The recognition is viewed mainly as a cognitive process of assigning a label to an emotion expressed by the music.…”