When do learners shift from habitual to agenda-based processes when selecting items for study?

Abstract

Learners presumably attempt to allocate their study time to maximize reward, yet in some contexts, their study choices are driven by reading biases that would not maximize reward. For instance, when presented with items in a horizontal array that are worth different values if correctly recalled, learners will often first select the leftmost item (i.e., a reading bias), even when it is associated with the lowest value. In four experiments, we investigated the degrees to which various factors cause learners to shift to agenda-based regulation. On each trial, participants were presented with three cues and a point value (1, 3, or 5) for each. The participants could select any cue for study (in which case, its target would be presented) in any order. In Experiment 1, participants either selected items for study under time pressure or were given unlimited time to select items. Not limiting selection time increased the likelihood that higher-valued items would be prioritized for study, but reading biases still influenced item selection. In Experiment 2, participants could select only one item per trial, and higher-valued items were prioritized even more for study, but not exclusively so. In Experiments 3 and 4, we ruled out a lack of motivation and inaccurate task beliefs as explanations for why participants would sometimes choose lower-valued items. The results demonstrate the influence of a pervasive reading bias on learners' item selections, but as importantly, they show that a shift toward agenda use occurs when habitual responding cannot maximize reward.

The value in rushing: Memory and selectivity when short on time

“…The fact that time constraints did have an impact in Ariel and Dunlosky (2013) but not in the current study, however, highlights the fact that selectivity and value-directed remembering may not always be as impervious to time constraints as in the current study—in some cases, selectivity may indeed change as a function of timing—and there are a number of factors that warrant additional consideration. For one, participants in the present study were not required to determine the value of the information they were attempting to remember—values were explicitly noted during the study session.…”

“…That evidence of value-directed remembering persisted despite time limitations might initially seem to conflict with recent work by Ariel and Dunlosky (2013), which demonstrated that participants were less value-driven in their item selections when under time pressure. Critically, however, participants in that study made item selections from triplet pairings that were presented to participants in a single row so as to activate habitual reading biases.…”

Metacognitive control: Shifting from habitual to agenda processes on item selection during study in elementary school children

“…Although selecting items on the basis of reading habits can be effective in many situations (Ariel & Dunlosky, ), people's study decisions are greatly biased by habitual responding that would not maximize reward and result in poor agenda execution (Ariel & Dunlosky, ; Dunlosky & Ariel, ). Therefore, in another study, Ariel and Dunlosky () explored under what conditions learners shifted from habitual to agenda‐based processes when selecting items for study, and discovered two conditions: (1) not limiting selection time and (2) restricting the number of selections on each trial.…”

“…Although selecting items on the basis of reading habits can be effective in many situations (Ariel & Dunlosky, ), people's study decisions are greatly biased by habitual responding that would not maximize reward and result in poor agenda execution (Ariel & Dunlosky, ; Dunlosky & Ariel, ). Therefore, in another study, Ariel and Dunlosky () explored under what conditions learners shifted from habitual to agenda‐based processes when selecting items for study, and discovered two conditions: (1) not limiting selection time and (2) restricting the number of selections on each trial. For the former condition, in the researchers’ view, time pressure during item selection will discourage ABR (i.e., to choose high‐reward item for study first) and encourage learners to use quicker, less resource‐demanding processes (i.e., to choose leftmost item for study first); when ample time for item selection is available to construct an agenda, the participants should be more likely to use agenda‐based processes to make their study decisions (Ariel & Dunlosky, ).…”

“…Both conditions focus on the significant role of task constraints. Most importantly, the authors found that when habitual responding could not optimize reward, the adult learners shifted towards agenda use (experiments 1 and 2) in specific task constraints (Ariel & Dunlosky, ).…”