When breast is not best: Opposing dominant discourses on breastfeeding

Abstract

Dominant discourses on breastfeeding as the optimal feeding method for infants and a way for mother and child to develop a strong bond are widely promoted and the message of ‘breast is best’ has been internalized by mothers around the world. Breastfeeding rates in Iceland and the other Nordic countries are among the highest in the world and the cultural and societal expectations for women to successfully breastfeed are therefore very high, as breastfeeding represents a strong moral and social norm. Iceland is considered a model for gender equality and feminism and this article thus examines the experiences of women who have struggled with breastfeeding, in a context which strongly promotes both breastfeeding and gender equality. By analysing the narratives of 77 Icelandic women, this article extends theorizing about rhetorical agency and resistance by demonstrating how they oppose and challenge dominant discourses on breastfeeding and good mothering and what counter-discourses they draw upon in order to make sense of their experiences. The findings indicate that feminism and feminist rhetoric have been unsuccessful in addressing and providing women with counter-discourses that challenge the highly gendered and oppressive elements of infant feeding and its link to idealized versions of motherhood.

Discourses and critiques of breastfeeding and their implications for midwives and health professionals

“…The claim that breastfeeding is convenient and supports attachment and bonding has been contested for being based on ideology rather than empirical evidence (Knaak, ; Law, ; Lee, ). Símonardóttir and Gíslason () also challenged this popular ideology having observed the contrary in their qualitative study on breastfeeding mothers from Iceland. The experience of some participants was likened to an emotional rollercoaster, and rather than being helpful to infant bonding, breastfeeding was reported to be ‘directly harmful to the bonding process’ (Símonardóttir & Gíslason, , p. 672).…”

“…Símonardóttir and Gíslason () also challenged this popular ideology having observed the contrary in their qualitative study on breastfeeding mothers from Iceland. The experience of some participants was likened to an emotional rollercoaster, and rather than being helpful to infant bonding, breastfeeding was reported to be ‘directly harmful to the bonding process’ (Símonardóttir & Gíslason, , p. 672). According to Barston (), the anti‐formula culture is insensitive to parents who do not fit into the proposed nuclear family, for example adoptive parents, homosexual parents, single mothers and mothers with HIV (Greene et al, ).…”

“…WHO () proposes that all infants should be exclusively breastfed until six months of age and breastfeeding should continue with complementary foods up to two years of age or beyond. This dominant breastfeeding discourse that emphasises considerable health benefits of breastmilk over formula positions the child who does not receive breastmilk for at least the first six months of life as relatively disadvantaged (Símonardóttir & Gíslason, ). Breastfeeding is promoted as a superior infant‐feeding method by health care professionals, in government health policies, in antenatal classes and in books, magazines and websites for expectant mothers (Knaak, ).…”

“…For the woman who experiences great difficulties in breastfeeding and for whom breastfeeding is a less than joyous experience, feelings of guilt and failure may provoke a crisis in her sense of self (Ryan, Bissel, & Alexander, ; Símonardóttir & Gíslason, ). Williamson, Leeming, Lyttle, and Johnson () noted that women were often surprised by the difficulties faced when breastfeeding and experience anxiety, upset and damage to their self‐worth when breastfeeding fails.…”

“…Foss (, p. 2) acknowledged the accuracy of the ‘breast is best’ message but added that the statement is ‘dripping with insinuation on a mother's inferiority and attributions of blame for not breastfeeding’. In Símonardóttir and Gíslason's () study, women experienced difficulties and pain (often severe) when breastfeeding with negative consequences for their emotional well‐being. The pressure to breastfeed was linked to postnatal depression by several women in the study and one described her experience of feeling constantly guilty and ‘like a terrible failure’ for ‘not being able to perform this simple task’ (Símonardóttir & Gíslason, , p. 672).…”