What Use Is Half a Wing in the Ecology and Evolution of Birds?

Dial, Kenneth P.; Randall, Ross J.; Dial, Terry R.

doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2006)056[0437:wuihaw]2.0.co;2

Cited by 70 publications

(122 citation statements)

References 19 publications

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“…Much recent effort has focused on the function of flapping incipient wings during WAIR (Bundle & Dial 2003;Dial 2003a,b;Dial et al 2006Dial et al , 2008. Here we provide an expansion on a newly described behaviour (Dial et al 2008), CFD, which represents the logical complement to ascending steep obstacles.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 96%

“…Data for maximal incline performance were taken from Dial et al (2006). For kinematic measurements, we chose a single incline angle (658) that all animals after 5 dph were able to perform (figure 2).…”

Section: Materials and Methods (A) Animal Care And Trainingmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…However, many clades of birds (e.g. tinamiformes, galliformes, anseriformes, columbiformes, corvidae, turdidae, emberizidae, parulidae) exhibit pre-flight flapping locomotion in the forms of wing-assisted incline running (WAIR; figure 1b) (B. E. Jackson & K. P. Dial 2003Dial , 2006Dial , 2007Dial 2003b;Dial et al 2006;Dial et al 2008) to scale inclined surfaces, and controlled flapping descent (CFD; figure 1b) to return to lower substrates while in the field and in the laboratory (B. E. Jackson & K. P. Dial 1998Dial -2008Dial et al 2008; this paper). These complementary behaviours provide probable adaptive value (e.g.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…predator escape and reducing risk of injury from descending from elevated refugia) for juveniles before they acquire full powered flight. Dial (2003b) and Dial et al (2006) showed that WAIR performance (maximum angle ascended) increases from 658 at hatching to 908 around 20 days post-hatching (dph) in chukar. This increase in performance correlates with decreased wing loading (Dial et al 2006) and with increased aerodynamic force production (Tobalske & Dial 2007).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Precocial development of locomotor performance in a ground-dwelling bird (Alectoris chukar): negotiating a three-dimensional terrestrial environment

2009

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Developing animals are particularly vulnerable to predation. Hence, precocial young of many taxa develop predator escape performance that rivals that of adults. Ontogenetically unique among vertebrates, birds transition from hind limb to forelimb dependence for escape behaviours, so developmental investment for immediate gains in running performance may impair flight performance later. Here, in a three-dimensional kinematic study of developing birds performing pre-flight flapping locomotor behaviours, wing-assisted incline running (WAIR) and a newly described behaviour, controlled flapping descent (CFD), we define three stages of locomotor ontogeny in a model gallinaceous bird (Alectoris chukar). In stage I (1 -7 days post-hatching (dph)) birds crawl quadrupedally during ascents, and their flapping fails to reduce their acceleration during aerial descents. Stage II (8 -19 dph) birds use symmetric wing beats during WAIR, and in CFD significantly reduce acceleration while controlling body pitch to land on their feet. In stage III (20 dph to adults), birds are capable of vertical WAIR and level-powered flight. In contrast to altricial species, which first fly when nearly at adult mass, we show that in a precocial bird the major requirements for flight (i.e. high power output, wing control and wing size) convene by around 8 dph (at ca 5% of adult mass) and yield significant gains in escape performance: immature chukars can fly by 20 dph, at only about 12 per cent of adult mass.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 96%

Section: Materials and Methods (A) Animal Care And Trainingmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Precocial development of locomotor performance in a ground-dwelling bird (Alectoris chukar): negotiating a three-dimensional terrestrial environment

2009

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“…This behaviour has been studied extensively in ontogenetic series up to adults in several species of Galliform birds [32,[38][39][40][41][42][43] and in adult pigeons (C. livia; [26]). Additionally, wing-assisted swimming and branching behaviour are described for developing ducks (Anseriformes) and owls (Strigiformes; [44]).…”

Section: Evolutionary Origins Of Avian Flightmentioning

confidence: 99%

Evolution of avian flight: muscles and constraints on performance

Tobalske¹

2016

Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B

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One contribution of 17 to a theme issue 'Moving in a moving medium: new perspectives on flight'. Competing hypotheses about evolutionary origins of flight are the 'fundamental wing-stroke' and 'directed aerial descent' hypotheses. Support for the fundamental wing-stroke hypothesis is that extant birds use flapping of their wings to climb even before they are able to fly; there are no reported examples of incrementally increasing use of wing movements in gliding transitioning to flapping. An open question is whether locomotor styles must evolve initially for efficiency or if they might instead arrive due to efficacy. The proximal muscles of the avian wing output work and power for flight, and new research is exploring functions of the distal muscles in relation to dynamic changes in wing shape. It will be useful to test the relative contributions of the muscles of the forearm compared with inertial and aerodynamic loading of the wing upon dynamic morphing. Body size has dramatic effects upon flight performance. New research has revealed that mass-specific muscle power declines with increasing body mass among species. This explains the constraints associated with being large. Hummingbirds are the only species that can sustain hovering. Their ability to generate force, work and power appears to be limited by time for activation and deactivation within their wingbeats of high frequency. Most small birds use flap-bounding flight, and this flight style may offer an energetic advantage over continuous flapping during fast flight or during flight into a headwind. The use of flap-bounding during slow flight remains enigmatic. Flap-bounding birds do not appear to be constrained to use their primary flight muscles in a fixed manner. To improve understanding of the functional significance of flap-bounding, the energetic costs and the relative use of alternative styles by a given species in nature merit study.This article is part of the themed issue 'Moving in a moving medium: new perspectives on flight'. OverviewMuscles are obviously key to the capacity of birds for flight, and the goal of this review is to explore current hypotheses of the ways muscles permit and constrain this capacity. Insight into the phylogeny of birds is improving rapidly, and this offers great promise for improving understanding of how evolution transformed ancestral theropod forms [1] into the derived, volant bird species we observe today. Genomic study [2][3][4] and the extraordinary rate of new discovery of fossil dinosaurs [5][6][7][8][9][10] have provided rich phylogenetic hypotheses from which we can begin to test patterns of historical transformation [11]. Concurrently, modern empirical and modelling techniques in comparative biomechanics offer new ways of testing hypotheses that link form and function. These include in vivo and in situ measures of the contractile behaviour of muscle [12 -14]: high-speed, three-dimensional videography that can reveal details of wing motion [15,16]; X-ray videography of skeletal kinematics [16,17]; particle ima...

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Evolution of Avian Flight

Heers

2013

Encyclopedia of Life Sciences

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The origin of birds and of bird flight has drawn scientific interest since the inception of evolutionary thinking. Though early investigations were hampered by a paucity of fossils, new discoveries have filled in many gaps and provided unprecedented detail into morphological changes that attended the evolutionary appearance of birds and bird flight. Birds are now widely regarded as the descendents of theropod dinosaurs. In contrast, form–function relationships and behaviours that might have facilitated the evolutionary acquisition of flight remain widely debated. Given the versatility of extant birds, we should not expect to find only one solution to this problem. Nevertheless, much debate seems to stem not from looking for multiple plausible functions and behaviours, but rather from traditional ‘ground up’ versus ‘trees down’ assumptions and a general lack of experimental and ecological support for inferred form–function relationships. Many researchers have therefore called for more rigorous hypothesis testing, and a plethora of new techniques and perspectives are up to the challenge. Key Concepts: Birds are the descendents of bipedal theropod dinosaurs. Evolutionary assembly of the avian body plan occurred gradually, with bird‐like wings evolving before bird‐like skeletons, in conjunction with a reduction in body size and then a cranial shift in centre of mass. These changes took place via a series of transitional anatomical stages that were presumably associated with transitional functions and behaviours before becoming co‐opted for flapping flight. Many origin‐of‐flight hypotheses have been proposed, and it is challenging to discriminate among them. Much debate seems to stem from traditional ‘ground up’ versus ‘trees down’ assumptions and a general lack of experimental and ecological support for inferred form–function relationships. A growing number of researchers have therefore suggested that hypotheses must be consistent not only with the fossil record, but also with experimental support for form–function relationships and behaviours inferred by origin‐of‐flight scenarios. New techniques and perspectives are meeting this challenge and providing more rigorous insight into the origin of flight in birds. For example, recent work on developing birds with dinosaur‐like anatomies clearly demonstrates that behaviours involving the cooperative use of wings and legs (e.g. wing‐assisted incline running and steaming) act as a developmental (or evolutionary) bridge between leg‐based terrestrial locomotion and wing‐based aerial locomotion, by allowing developing birds (or evolving dinosaurs) to supplement their wings with their legs until the wings can fully support body weight during flight.

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What Use Is Half a Wing in the Ecology and Evolution of Birds?

Cited by 70 publications

References 19 publications

Precocial development of locomotor performance in a ground-dwelling bird (Alectoris chukar): negotiating a three-dimensional terrestrial environment

Precocial development of locomotor performance in a ground-dwelling bird (Alectoris chukar): negotiating a three-dimensional terrestrial environment

Evolution of avian flight: muscles and constraints on performance

Evolution of Avian Flight

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