What Psychological Factors Make Individuals Believe They Are Infected by Coronavirus 2019?

Abstract

Background: We previously showed, by means of an online-based survey, that the belief of being infected by coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) acted as a nocebo and predicted higher perception of symptoms similar to COVID-19 symptoms. However, there is little known about the psychological mechanisms that give rise to beliefs such as certainty of being infected by COVID-19, and this was investigated in the present study.Objective: Using the same data from the previous online survey with the same research team, we further investigated whether certainty of being infected by COVID-19 is associated with age, sex, health anxiety, and/or personality traits.Methods: Respondents (N = 375) filled out an online survey with 57 questions about symptoms similar to COVID-19, certainty of being infected by COVID-19, anxiety, stress, health anxiety, and personality dimensions (based on the five-factor model of personality).Results: Higher levels of conscientiousness and health anxiety were independently associated with certainty of being infected by COVID-19. The model predicted 29% of the variance in certainty of being infected by COVID-19.Conclusion: Being conscientious and worried about health issues were associated with the belief of being infected by COVID-19. Such finding may have implications for health care personnel who provide COVID-19 testing or consulting services to general population, as individuals high in these traits may over-report COVID-like symptoms. Theoretically, these findings point to psychological factors that may increase nocebo and possibly placebo effects. Clinically, the findings suggest that individuals high in conscientiousness and health anxiety may be more likely to over-report their bodily experiences.

Epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Italy Using Real-World Data: Methodology and Cohort Description of the Second Phase of Web-Based EPICOVID19 Study

“…We also observed specific sex-differences in relation to the self-reported COVID-19-like symptoms, in which females tend to systematically over-report symptoms. Because no sex difference in the rate of positivity to the diagnostic or screening test has been observed, a possible explanation might reside in the fact that females were more worried about the health situation and tended to be more prone to the phenomenon of the 'nocebo effects' compared to males, as shown in other studies [44][45][46]. In line with available evidence, considering only participants with positive results from NPS and/or ST, males more often reported symptoms, such as fever and cough, known as predictors of worse outcomes [47], whereas females reported more frequently symptoms susceptible to subjective perception (headache, anosmia, dysgeusia, sore throat) and generally associated with less severe infections [48,49].…”

Epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 infection in Italy using real-world data: methodology and cohort description of the second phase of web-based EPICOVID19 study

“…We also observed specific sex-differences in relation to the self-reported COVID-19-like symptoms, in which females tend to systematically over-report symptoms. Because no sex difference in the rate of positivity to the diagnostic or screening test has been observed, a possible explanation might reside in the fact that females were more worried about the health situation and tended to be more prone to the phenomenon of the ‘nocebo effects’ compared to males, as shown in other studies [44-46]. In line with available evidence, considering only participants with positive results from NPS and/or ST, males more often reported symptoms, such as fever and cough, known as predictors of worse outcomes [47] whereas females reported more frequently symptoms susceptible to subjective perception (headache, anosmia, dysgeusia, sore throat) and generally associated with less severe infections [48,49].…”

Few SARS-CoV-2 infections detected in Newfoundland and Labrador in the absence of Public Health Laboratory-based confirmation

“…The tendency for media and media consumers to focus on extremes in negative news affects fear in the population, which can be an appropriate adaptive response conferring protection, but can also increase psychological stress and anxiety [29]. Belief that the risk of contracting COVID-19 is high raises suspicion that symptoms common to many respiratory infections reflect COVID-19 and persons experiencing greater anxiety and stress report more COVIDlike symptoms [30]. In addition, the belief that symptoms of COVID-19 are likely to be severe can influence perception of the severity of symptoms experienced, as illustrated by the nocebo effect [31].…”