What is Informal Learning and What are its Antecedents? An Integrative and Meta-Analytic Review

Abstract

Workplace learning is critical to organizations. Hundreds of studies and over a dozen metaanalyses have explored the nature and effectiveness of formal learning in the workplace. Several review chapters and texts have integrated formal learning research findings to aid practitioners and future research. However, not all learning occurs formally. There is a growing consensus that the bulk of learning takes place experientially and informally, with estimates that 70% to 90% of all organizational learning occurs outside of formal training. Given that there has been little systematic treatment of informal learning, we provide a review and synthesis of the literature with two goals. First, we provide an intuitive framework to conceptualize the broader organizational learning domain, using it to position and define informal learning. Second, we utilize an interactionist perspective to explore environmental and personal factors that either enhance or deter informal learning. We then present a series of meta-analyses of existing data to highlight what is known and uncover what is unknown about antecedents of informal learning. We conclude with an agenda for further theorizing and research to promote the understanding and application of informal learning principles in organizations.

Well-being through learning: a systematic review of learning interventions in the workplace and their impact on well-being

“…Despite a widely held assumption that learning is good for well-being and that providing learning opportunities for employees can translate into greater organizational commitment and job satisfaction, the dynamic between learning interventions and well-being at work remains underexplored. Arguably, because of this assumption, existing researchincluding meta-analyses and reviewshas sought to analyse the learning processes only in terms of learning outcomes and not well-being outcomes (Cerasoli et al, 2014, see also Salas et al, 2008;Keith & Frese, 2008;Callahan, Kiker, & Cross, 2003;Colquitt, LePine, & Noe, 2000). There is also wider evidence that learning is important for well-being beyond the workplace (Dolan, Fujiwara, & Metcalfe, 2012;Duckworth & Cara, 2012; Inquiry for lifelong learning (IFLL), 2009).…”

Defining research focus in self-directed learning: An autoethnographic reflection

“…The element of independent, self-education in an enjoyable and experiential context that accompanied the video gameplay (Cerasoli et al 2014;Mardis 2013;Sherry 2001) could be regarded as instrumental for the growth noted in the development of some of the critical thinking skills, dispositions, standards for reasoning and subsequently SDL (Coombs, Prosser & Ahmed 1973;Rogers 2014;UNESCO 2012). However, it would seem to be more beneficial to combine informal and non-formal learning with a much stronger formal learning component, clearly conveying the intentionality (Isman & Tzuriel 2008) of the gameplay to the participants, to achieve greater benefits.…”

Judging informal learning interventions: a vignette study

“…In general, informal learning can be conceptualised along two dimensions: formal versus informal; and intentional versus incidental. Informal as compared to formal can be described as unstructured (Eraut, 2004) and self-directed (Marsick and Watkins, 2001), taking place outside of classrooms (Berg and Chyung, 2008), via observations, practice and in social interaction with others (Cerasoli et al , 2014; Spaan et al , 2016). Note, however, that there is no mutually exclusive distinction that makes certain learning activities formal or informal.…”

“…Note, however, that there is no mutually exclusive distinction that makes certain learning activities formal or informal. Many researchers agree that the formal-informal dimension is better considered as a continuum, in which some learning “types” or “activities” are closer to the formal end of the scale and others to the informal end (Eraut, 2004; Cerasoli et al , 2014; Kyndt et al , 2016; Marsick, 2009). According to Svensson et al (2004), formal and informal learning in the workplace should complement each other.…”

“…Furthermore, incidental learning as compared to intentional learning can be described as “by accident” (Eraut, 2004; Spaan et al , 2016) or when the learner does not set out to purposefully learn something (Cerasoli et al , 2014), opportunistic (Eraut, 2004), unconscious (Marsick and Watkins, 2001) or spontaneous (Doornbos et al , 2008).…”