What Do We Know About Glass Ceiling Effects? A Taxonomy and Critical Review to Inform Higher Education Research

Abstract

The concept of ''glass ceiling effects'' has emerged in social science research in general and higher education in particular over the past 20 years. These studies have described the impediments that women and people of color encounter in their quest for senior-level positions (e.g., CEOs) in society as glass ceiling effects. Literature, both empirical and non-empirical, has provided broad and varied interpretations of glass ceiling effects. In turn, the literature is less-than-settled on the application of glass ceiling effects. In this manuscript, the authors analyzed and critiqued 66 documents in order to advance theoretical and practical knowledge regarding glass ceiling effects in higher education.

Moonlighting Politicians: A Survey and Research Agenda

“…While an interesting observation, the real issue is what drives it: Do women have different preferences concerning outside jobs or are they discriminated against in the moonlighters' job market? As in the literature on glass ceiling effects and gender discrimination in general (for a recent review, see Jackson and O'Callaghan 2009), separating these two explanations is critical for public policy implications. To address this issue, it may be fruitful to complement current analyses with more detailed study -for example, via (semi-)structured interviews -of participants at both sides of the moonlighting job market in terms of application behaviour, job offering, acceptance/rejection decisions, etc.…”

Pursuing leadership positions in higher education : a phenomenological exploration of female administrators' experiences with gender inequality

“…Gender inequality is a complex problem that causes considerable disagreement among researchers over causes and remedies (Jackson & O'Callaghan, 2009). Like the studies by Timmers, Willemsen, and Tijdens (2010) and Ballenger (2010), the barriers are organized according to three factors-cultural, institutional and individual-that contribute to their creation.…”

“…Women are more likely than men to hold part-time or adjunct positions (Curtis, 2011;Glazer-Raymo, 2008;Penney et al, 2007;West & Curtis, 2006). Approximately 44% of full-time faculty positions go to women (National Center for Education Statistics, 2016), but they are more likely to be at 2-year colleges than doctoral granting institutions (Jackson & Leon, 2010;Jackson & O'Callaghan, 2009;West & Curtis, 2006). "The proportion of full-time faculty members with non-tenure-track appointments has steadily increased" (Curtis, 2011, p. 2) since 1996.…”

“…"The proportion of full-time faculty members with non-tenure-track appointments has steadily increased" (Curtis, 2011, p. 2) since 1996. In this context, women have been less likely to obtain tenure as well as the rank of full professor (Collins, 1998;Curtis, 2011;Glazer-Raymo, 2008;Jackson & O'Callaghan, 2009;Penney et al, 2007;West & Curtis, 2006). Approximately, 43% of women in tenure-track positions have tenure compared to 57% of men (National Center for Education Statistics, 2016).…”

“…In 2014, 31% of full professor positions were held by women (Johnson, 2016). Additionally, female faculty members are paid approximately 20% less than their male colleagues (Floss, 2011;Lepkowski, 2009;Renzulli, Grant, & Kathuria, 2006;Scholnick, 1998) as well as promoted and tenured more slowly (Collins, 1998;Jackson & O'Callaghan, 2009;Lepkowski, 2009). It is problematic that women continue to be underrepresented in faculty, since "almost 70 percent of presidents have served as faculty members at some point in their academic careers" (King & Gomez, 2008, p. 1) and the typical pathway to the presidency includes a stop in senior faculty (American Council on Education, Center for Policy Research and Strategy, 2017a;Bornstein, 2008;Cook, 2012;Singell & Tang, 2013;Walton & McDade, 2001).…”