Well, at least it is better than death…

Abstract

Well, at least it is better than death…Addiction, that is … a behavior or use that starts as pleasurable or comforting, but through continued use becomes compulsive and interferes with ordinary life, responsibilities, and health. The behavioral or chemical addiction (smoking, alcohol, cocaine, shopping, sex, gambling, etcetera) appears to take over the physiology and emotions of the user; an external force changing or even controlling the inner code. Sort of like epigenetics, eh?The pages of this and other journals are replete with descriptions of the molecular and physiological changes that occur in the germ line and its supportive tissues by chemical addictions. A quick search of the literature within Pubmed reveals over 15,000 articles for "reproduction and smoking", 30,000 for "reproduction and alcohol"… as well as 37 articles for "reproduction and shopping", and 88 for "reproduction and gambling". (Yes, we are thorough here at MRD!) Most troubling, though, is the rapid rise in articles under the search for reproduction and opioids -already over 6,000 articles.Opioids are an increasingly large problem in the world; an estimated 69,000 people die from opioid overdose each year worldwide (World Health Organization, 2014), and 15 million people are estimated to suffer from opioid addiction. Opioids are derived from the opium poppy, or are chemically synthesized to mimic these compounds. Commonly used opioids include illicit substances, such as heroin, and medically prescribed pain-relieving variants, such as oxycodone, morphine, hydrocodone (e.g. Vicodin), codeine, and methadone. Opioids are frequently prescribed for pain because they are inexpensive, effective, and long-lasting… and, yes, quite addictive.The path to drug addiction is easy: the United States National Institute on Drug Abuse estimates that one in every four people who uses heroin will become addicted to it. Half of the people who use heroin began by using prescription opioids (www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/heroin) and taking opioids leads to neurobiological effects that make it diffi cult to quit. This manifests clinically as increased opioid tolerance, requiring addicts to take higher doses to achieve the same effect.Opioid receptors are seven-transmembrane G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) that produce a variety of downstream effects, which can translate to feelings of analgesia. These receptors are found scattered throughout the body, and respond to exogenous opioid compounds as effectively as the endogenous neuropeptides. Within the nervous system, opioids target areas of the brain that control breathing; if opioid use is suddenly stopped, the brain produces strong withdrawal symptoms that for some comes close to the feeling of death.Opioid receptors are also present in the gonads (Holden et. al., 2005); indeed, human gonads utilize a range of endogenous opioid peptides. Pro-opiomelanocortin-derived peptides, the precursors to opioid peptides, are present in human Leydig cells, which produce testosterone in the testis. The prim...