Waterpipe and Cigarette Smoking among University Students in the Western Cape, South Africa

Abstract

Waterpipe smoking in the Western Cape is widespread, but less than cigarette smoking. Because all tobacco products are harmful, the government has an obligation to impose appropriate regulatory measures to reduce waterpipe consumption.

Frequency of waterpipe smoking and its effective factors among students of state universities in Kerman, Iran

“…The age of the first consumption of waterpipe in the current research was 17.9 (±3.9) years, the age of starting to consume waterpipe was 18(±3.4) years in Tehran [14], 18(±2.5) years in Saudi Arabia [21], and 16(±2.81) years in South Africa [20], 19(±5.84) years in the United States [16], indicating lack of a significant difference between the domestic and foreign studies. Comparing the frequency of waterpipe consumption among males and females demonstrates higher consumption of it among males, and this result is seen in many domestic and foreign studies [11, 12, etc.…”

“…In the United States, Leavens et al [16], Heinz et al [17] and Noonan [18] reported the history of waterpipe consumption as 35.3%, 48% and 61%, respectively. It has been also reported 66% in England [19], 32.2% in South Africa [20], 37% in Saudi Arabia [21], 41.9% in Lebanon [22], and 56% in Jordan [23] students. In general, waterpipe consumption has increased in different communities and in different cultures, and it is mostly seen among adolescents and young people, thus high frequency of waterpipe consumption among students in different countries is predictable.…”

“…The main reason for consumption of waterpipe for the first time was reported to be curiosity (74.8%) in Saudi Arabia [21]. In South Africa, 57% of students consumed it for socialization and 33.3% for relaxation [20]. As the conditions of consuming the waterpipe are in a way that several people can converse for a long time while waterpipe, it is considered recreation and entertainment and even a tool for resting and relaxation.…”

“…In general, waterpipe consumption, as other substances, is more in males than that in females [12, 13, etc.]. However, some studies showed no difference between males and females in this regard [20].…”

“…It was later spread to other countries, including Iran, Egypt and the Eastern Mediterranean. After a short period of reduction in waterpipe consumption, its consumption increased since the early 1990s [2], particularly in recent years and among young people in different countries, even in Western countries such as England, France, Russia, Australia, Canada and the United States, not only in Asian and African countries [3,4]. Reasons for increased consumption of waterpipe include lack of knowledge about its complications, acceptance of waterpipe consumption as a social behavior, expansion of waterpipe supply centers and stores supplying its related products in society, and supply of new and flavored tobaccos at low cost [5][6][7].…”