Wastewater reuse in the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC): the lost opportunity

Abstract

Reuse of treated wastewater is not only environmentally and financially sound, it is becoming indispensable for meeting the staggering water demand in certain regions, especially under conditions of alarming water scarcity. Reusing treated wastewater will help in reducing the pressure on expensive desalinated water production and depleting groundwater withdrawal, thereby reducing associated harmful environmental impacts. Reuse of wastewater in general and in the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) in particular has been a priority research area and has been in the media spotlight for some time, especially the use of tertiary quality water resources for agricultural purposes. However, reuse of treated wastewater is still in its primitive stage in terms of implementation in GCC. In addition, the overall volume of tertiary treated water that outflows unutilized to the sea is much greater than the volume reused. This paper provides a general review of and statistics on current practices of treatment of domestic wastewater in the GCC. The review highlights water resources, sanitation service coverage, wastewater treatment, effluent types, treated and reuse quantities, costs, and tariffs. The paper provides recommendations to improve wastewater treatment in the GCC to alleviate the stress on the scarce groundwater resources, provide a relatively inexpensive alternative to desalination, reduce the environmentally adverse impacts and externalities of desalination plants, and eliminate the discharge of untreated wastewater in coastal areas or terrestrial landfills.

Risk-Yuck Factor Nexus in Reclaimed Wastewater for Irrigation: Comparing Farmers’ Attitudes and Public Perception

“…Moreover, it is considered a primary objective also for developed countries in which freshwater is still not considered a limiting resource, e.g., USA and EU [15]. Ordinarily, many regions at a world level are exploring the use of alternative water resources in response to emerging water scarcity challenges [16,17], current and future water shortages [18,19], and growing pressures on global water resources [20,21]. As half of the global water bodies are seriously contaminated, wastewater treatment and reuse promote environmental security by alleviating the pollution of freshwater resources, and providing water supply for irrigation [22].…”

Sustainable Agriculture in the Arabian/Persian Gulf Region Utilizing Marginal Water Resources: Making the Best of a Bad Situation

“…(Although mariculture is also an advanced food production technology in many regions, it can also entail significant economic investment and is frequently fraught with significant financial risk). The wastewater treatment rate in the GCC varies across countries from 41% in Oman to 75% in Kuwait, while the mean reuse rate does not exceed 30% due to fluctuations in water quality and the lack of distribution networks [8]. Expanding TSE reuse across the GCC is expected to increase and thus contribute to decreasing the reliance of groundwater use for agriculture.…”

“…Water and energy production systems are highly interlinked in the GCC. High amounts of cheap energy are used to desalinate water, which is then provided at subsidized prices and in some countries free of charge for national residents and also used in agriculture [120,121] Although GCC countries have moved to gradually reduce subsidies, the lack of universal tariffs on water use and wastewater treatment is one of the key constrains to water reuse policies [8]. At the same time, energy subsidies account for over 8.5% of the GDP and 22% of public spending in the GCC region [122].…”

“…However, this TSE resource is underutilized. Currently, the wastewater treatment average in the GCC is around 56%, while only 43% of the treated wastewater in the region is being recycled, contributing to only 1.8% of total water supply [8]. One of the chief reasons for this wastage is due to poorly organized or fragmented distribution networks, which makes dispersal of this resource difficult or problematic.…”

System Modeling, Optimization, and Analysis of Recycled Water and Dynamic Storm Water Deliveries to Spreading Basins for Urban Groundwater Recharge

“…Among 1,104 MAR projects cataloged across 62 counties, Stefan and Ansems () identified 88 projects that use recycled water. However, several trends—for example, intensified water scarcity, growing numbers of successful recycled water projects, enhanced understanding of recycled water's safety, regulatory drivers, the need to replace aging water infrastructure, and improved public perception of recycled water—motivate expanding indirect and direct potable reuse practices worldwide (Aleisa & Al‐Zubari, ; Apostolidis et al, ; Gerrity et al, ; Hering et al, ; Luthy & Sedlak, ; National Research Council, ; Smith et al, ; Yi et al, ).…”