Waste tissue-based bilayer solar evaporator for efficient solar photothermal generation of clean water

Magnesium Citrate Powders from Waste Bitterns via Crystallization and Spray Drying

“…Using commercial manufacturing processes of citric acid as a reference for that of magnesium citrate nonahydrate, the SEC in the process producing magnesium citrate nonahydrate mainly comprises those consumed in two stages: evaporation/crystallization and drying − (Figure ). With respect to the evaporation/crystallization stage, it was found that forced circulation crystallizers/evaporators (FCC) are commonly used for the crystallization of citric acid solids from its solutions. ,− Commercially, there are various organic and inorganic chemicals manufactured using forced circulation crystallizers including sodium sulfate, citric acid, urea, sodium chloride, caustic potash, ammonium sulfate, and magnesium chloride. − During the drying stage, rotary dryers (RD) or fluidized bed dryers (FBD) could be employed to produce powdered citric acid products without further pulverization. ,, Therefore, two scenarios of using either a FBD or an RD as the drying equipment employed in the assumed process to produce magnesium citrate nonahydrate were investigated in this study (Figure ). It was found that although RD require less energy to dry materials compared to FBD, the latter is more thermally efficient than the former in terms of energy consumption. , Maintenance and operating costs for FBD are also lower than for RD as they have no moving internal parts…”