Volatile organic compounds emitted by filamentous fungi isolated from flooded homes after Hurricane Sandy show toxicity in a Drosophila bioassay

Abstract

Superstorm Sandy provided an opportunity to study filamentous fungi (molds) associated with winter storm damage. We collected 36 morphologically distinct fungal isolates from flooded buildings. By combining traditional morphological and cultural characters with an analysis of ITS sequences (the fungal DNA barcode), we identified 24 fungal species that belong to eight genera: Penicillium (11 species), Fusarium (four species), Aspergillus (three species), Trichoderma (two species), and one species each of Metarhizium, Mucor, Pestalotiopsis, and Umbelopsis. Then, we used a Drosophila larval assay to assess possible toxicity of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by these molds. When cultured in a shared atmosphere with growing cultures of molds isolated after Hurricane Sandy, larval toxicity ranged from 15 to 80%. VOCs from Aspergillus niger 129B were the most toxic yielding 80% mortality to Drosophila after 12 days. The VOCs from Trichoderma longibrachiatum 117, Mucor racemosus 138a, and Metarhizium anisopliae 124 were relatively non-toxigenic. A preliminary analysis of VOCs was conducted using solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry from two of the most toxic, two of the least toxic, and two species of intermediate toxicity. The more toxic molds produced higher concentrations of 1-octen-3-ol, 3-octanone, 3-octanol, 2-octen-1-ol, and 2-nonanone; while the less toxic molds produced more 3-methyl-1-butanol and 2-methyl-1-propanol, or an overall lower amount of volatiles. Our data support the hypothesis that at certain concentrations, some VOCs emitted by indoor molds are toxigenic.

Characterization of Blue Mold Penicillium Species Isolated from Stored Fruits Using Multiple Highly Conserved Loci

“…For comparison, one P . solitum strain (NJ1) originally obtained as a subculture of a sector of strain 2159A from the Northern Regional Research Laboratory culture collection [ 19 ], and one strain of P. sclerotiorum (113) collected from a flooded home in Manasquan, New Jersey were included [ 20 , 21 ]. Isolates were purified by culturing from single spores, and a preliminary characterization was conducted using macro- and microscopic observations and measurements, including colony color, diameter and texture, conidiospores and conidiophore morphology, and mycotoxin production.…”

“…Using identification keys from previous studies [ 11 , 22 ], most of the isolates were tentatively identified to the species level. Penicillium isolates that could not be identified microscopically were grouped into morphotypes by their growth characteristics on three differential media: malt extract agar (MEA), Czapek yeast agar (CYA), and corn meal agar (CMA), yeast extract sucrose agar (YES), and creatine sucrose agar (CREA) [ 7 , 20 , 23 , 24 , 25 ]. To obtain a preliminary analysis of mycotoxins (patulin and citrinin), the isolates were cultured in potato dextrose broth at 25 °C for seven days and extracted using an organic solvent extraction method [ 26 , 27 ].…”

Drosophila melanogasteras a Model for StudyingAspergillus fumigatus

“…The volatile metabolites that released from Aspergillus niger were most toxic yielding 80% mortality to Drosophila after 12 days, while VOCs produced by Trichoderma longibrachiatum , Mucor racemosus , and Metarhizium anisopliae were relatively non-toxigenic. Using solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatographymass spectrometry 1-octen-3-ol, 3-octanone, 3-octanol, 2-octen-1-ol, and 2-nonanone were found in a high concentration by the most toxic species, while 3methyl-1-butanol and 2-methyl-1-propanol were produced by the less toxic fungi [ 58 ]. Similar toxigenic effects were observed when flies are exposed to the vapors of chemical standards of selected fungal VOCs.…”

Genome Sequencing and Analysis of the Filamentous Fungus Penicillium sclerotiorum 113, Isolated after Hurricane Sandy

“…A recent report showed that P. sclerotiorum is the etiological agent of postharvest fungal diseases of pomegranate in Spain (12). Here, we report and characterize the genome of P. sclerotiorum 113, a strain isolated from a home in Manasquan, New Jersey, that was flooded with marine water in 2013 during Hurricane Sandy (13). …”